Schema Theory

Schema theory

A cognitive theory explaining how humans organize, process, and recall information through mental frameworks called schemas

Origin of schema theory

Developed primarily by Bartlett and later studied by Anderson & Pichert (1978) and Bransford & Johnson (1972)

Schemas

Pre-defined categories or frameworks used to organize information and guide cognition and memory

Types of schemas

Self-schemas (personal experiences), scripts (expected event sequences), and social schemas (stereotypes about people)

Cognitive misers

Concept describing humans’ tendency to use heuristics to simplify thinking, often at the expense of accuracy

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making and memory retrieval

Testability of schema theory

Schema theory is testable through experiments investigating memory encoding, retrieval, and distortion

Anderson & Pichert (1978)

Study investigating the influence of schema on encoding and retrieval using “homebuyer” and “burglar” perspectives

Anderson & Pichert procedure

Participants read a passage, completed filler tasks, then recalled it from one perspective, later switching or retaining perspective

Anderson & Pichert results

Participants recalled details relevant to their assigned perspective and successfully shifted schema when asked

Anderson & Pichert conclusion

Demonstrates schema-driven encoding and retrieval, schemas guide what information is attended to and remembered

Anderson & Pichert evaluation strengths

High control, supports schema theory’s predictive validity

Anderson & Pichert evaluation weaknesses

Artificial task and limited sample reduce ecological and cross-cultural validity

Bartlett (1932) “War of the Ghosts”

Study investigating memory distortion and reconstruction through schema processes

Bartlett procedure

British participants read a Native American story unfamiliar to their culture and recalled it after various intervals

Bartlett findings

Participants shortened, simplified, or changed story details (levelling, sharpening, assimilation) to fit their cultural schemas

Levelling

Shortening or omitting unfamiliar details

Sharpening

Changing story details to make them more logical or familiar

Assimilation

Replacing unfamiliar elements with culturally familiar ones

Bartlett conclusion

Memory is reconstructive and guided by schemas that shape encoding and recall

Bartlett strengths

Pioneering research supporting reconstructive memory and schema influence

Bartlett limitations

Lacks standardization, random recall intervals, no control group, limited temporal validity

Bransford & Johnson (1972)

Study testing how context affects memory encoding and retrieval through schema activation

Bransford & Johnson procedure

Five groups heard a recording with varying degrees of contextual information provided before or after

Bransford & Johnson results

Best recall when context was given before (8/14 items), poorest when no or post-context (≈3.6/14 items)

Bransford & Johnson conclusion

Providing schema (context) before encoding improves comprehension and recall

Bransford & Johnson strengths

Demonstrated predictive validity of schema activation in memory processes

Bransford & Johnson limitations

Artificial design, limited sample, low mundane realism reduce generalisability

Strengths of schema theory

Testable, supported by multiple studies, and applicable to real-world cognition

Weaknesses of schema theory

Lacks biological evidence, abstract mechanisms, and often low ecological validity

Application to Bowlby (1957)

Internal working model applies schema theory to attachment and relationship formation

Hazan & Shaver (1987)

Found that early attachment schemas influence adult relationship styles and perceptions of love

Real-world relevance

Schema theory explains social cognition, stereotypes, and attachment patterns

Evaluation summary

Schema theory is evidence-based, testable, and predictive, but limited by abstraction and lack of biological support

Conclusion

Schema theory effectively explains memory organization and reconstruction, but future research should increase realism and biological integration