ESPM 50AC Unit 2

Contact

Interaction between Northeastern Woodland Indigenous societies and English colonists that brought different economic systems, environmental views, and cultural practices into conflict and exchange.

Northeastern Woodland Indigenous societies

Societies organized around subsistence horticulture and hunting/gathering, relying on seasonal cycles, community resource management, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge.

Subsistence horticulture and hunter/gatherer mode of production

An economic system focused on producing food primarily for survival rather than markets, combining small-scale farming with hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Three Sisters agriculture

The planting of corn, beans, and squash together because corn provided structure for beans to climb, beans fixed nitrogen in the soil, and squash covered the ground to retain moisture and prevent weeds.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)

Knowledge developed by Indigenous peoples over generations through observation and interaction with ecosystems, guiding sustainable resource management.

Indigenous ideas about nature

Nature understood as animate and relational, with humans as part of ecological systems rather than separate from them.

Corn Mother myth

An Indigenous origin story emphasizing the sacred origins of corn and the reciprocal relationship between humans and nature.

English colonist social organization

A mixed subsistence and market-oriented system combining household production, agriculture, private property, and commercial trade.

Colonial ideas about nature and wilderness

European colonists often saw wilderness as empty, dangerous land that needed to be controlled, improved, and transformed through agriculture and settlement.

Dualistic view of nature

The belief that humans and nature exist separately.

Instrumental view of nature

The belief that nature primarily exists as a resource for human use.

Production in Indigenous societies

Production aimed at sustaining communities and ecosystems.

Reproduction in Indigenous societies

Maintaining community survival through balanced ecological relationships, cultural traditions, and environmental stewardship.

Production in settler societies

Production focused on surplus, accumulation, and market exchange.

Reproduction in settler societies

Societal growth through territorial expansion, markets, and population increase.

George Henry Boughton, Pilgrims Going to Church (1867)

Painting depicting Pilgrims traveling through wilderness, reinforcing the narrative of brave settlers in a harsh landscape.

Thomas Cole, The Oxbow (1836)

Landscape painting contrasting wild nature with cultivated farmland, symbolizing the transformation of wilderness through settlement.

Fur trade

A major economic system in North America centered on trading animal pelts, especially beaver, between Indigenous peoples and European colonists.

Mercantilism

Economic system in which colonies supplied raw materials to imperial powers in exchange for manufactured goods.

Fur trade impacts on Indigenous societies

The fur trade caused social disruption, ecological change from overhunting, and economic dependency on European goods.

Social dislocation from the fur trade

Traditional social relations weakened as communities depended on European trade goods.

Ecological effects of the fur trade

Decline in beaver and other animal populations due to overhunting.

Abenaki

An Indigenous nation of the northeastern woodlands involved in the fur trade and alliances with European traders.

Iroquois

A powerful confederacy of Indigenous nations in the northeastern woodlands that played a major role in regional trade and politics.

Huron

An Indigenous group in the Great Lakes region heavily involved in the fur trade with the French.

Fox

A Native American nation of the Great Lakes region affected by fur trade competition and colonial conflicts.

Sauk

A Native American nation from the Great Lakes region whose social and economic systems were influenced by the fur trade.

Ecological Indian

A narrative portraying Indigenous peoples as naturally living in perfect harmony with nature.

Ecological Indian myth

The simplified belief that all Indigenous societies were inherently conservationist.

Native American burning practices

Controlled burning used to manage landscapes, promote biodiversity, improve hunting grounds, and support food production.

Kat Anderson's argument

Native Californians actively managed ecosystems through practices such as burning, pruning, and selective harvesting to maintain productive landscapes.

Shepard Krech's argument

Challenges the Ecological Indian narrative by arguing Indigenous peoples sometimes exploited resources and were not universally conservationist.

Tending the Wild

Film and concept highlighting how Native Californians intentionally managed landscapes through traditional ecological practices.

Frontier

The expanding boundary between settler societies and Indigenous lands in North America.

Crude backwoodsman

A cultural stereotype portraying rugged frontier settlers living in wilderness conditions.

Agrarian myth

The belief that independent farmers represent the ideal foundation of democracy and American virtue.

Thomas Jefferson

Political thinker who promoted agriculture and the independent farmer as the backbone of democracy.

Yeoman farmer

An independent landowning farmer viewed as morally virtuous and central to the American democratic ideal.

Manifest Destiny

The belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America.

Thomas Gast, American Progress (1870)

Painting depicting westward expansion as inevitable progress with settlers, railroads, and technology moving west.

Frederick Jackson Turner's frontier thesis

The argument that American democracy and identity were shaped by the experience of westward expansion.

New Western History

A historical perspective emphasizing conquest, colonization, race, environmental change, and power in the American West.

Settler colonialism

A system where settlers permanently occupy land and displace Indigenous populations.

Social construction of Native Americans

The process by which societies created changing images and stereotypes of Indigenous peoples.

Six stages of social construction

A progression of stereotypes portraying Native Americans differently depending on political and social needs.

Albert Bierstadt, Indian Canoe (1868)

Painting portraying Indigenous people as part of a romantic wilderness landscape.

Charles Bird King, Young Omahaw, War Eagle, Little Missouri, and Pawnees (1822)

Portraits representing Indigenous leaders in dignified but romanticized forms.

Theodore Kaufman, Westward the Star of Empire Makes Its Way (1867)

Painting celebrating American expansion while portraying Indigenous peoples as obstacles to progress.

Anton Gag, Attack on New Ulm during the Sioux Outbreak (1904)

Artwork depicting violent conflict between settlers and Native Americans.

W. H. Childs, Execution at Mankato (1862)

Image documenting the mass execution of Dakota men after the Dakota War of 1862.

Henry Farny, Morning of a New Day (1907)

Painting portraying Indigenous peoples as fading relics of the past.

Charles Christian Nahl, Sacramento Indian and Dogs (1867)

Painting reflecting romanticized portrayals of Native Americans.

Carlisle Indian School

A boarding school designed to assimilate Native American children into Euro-American culture.

Bob Haozous, Indian Speak and Wheel of Fortune (2005)

Artwork critiquing stereotypes and commodification of Native American identity.

Federal Indian policy

The evolving set of U.S. government policies toward Native American tribes.

Trade and treaty era

Period when tribes interacted with colonial governments through trade agreements and treaties.

Removal era

Period of forced relocation of tribes from eastern lands to territories west of the Mississippi River.

Allotment era

Period when tribal lands were divided into individual allotments to encourage assimilation.

Reorganization era

Period when federal policy supported tribal self-government and ended allotment.

Termination era

Period when the federal government attempted to end tribal sovereignty and federal recognition.

Self-determination era

Period emphasizing tribal sovereignty and tribal control over governance and programs.

Johnson v. M'Intosh

Supreme Court case establishing that tribes had occupancy rights but ultimate land title belonged to the federal government under the doctrine of discovery.

Doctrine of discovery

Legal principle stating that European nations gained sovereignty over lands they discovered.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

Supreme Court case declaring tribes to be domestic dependent nations.

Domestic dependent nations

Legal status describing tribes as sovereign but under U.S. federal authority.

Worcester v. Georgia

Supreme Court case ruling that state laws cannot be enforced on tribal lands.

Indian Removal Act

1830 law forcing many Native American tribes to relocate west of the Mississippi River.

Trail of Tears

Forced migration of tribes such as the Cherokee that caused widespread suffering and death.

Dawes Act

1887 law dividing tribal lands into individual allotments and opening remaining lands to settlers.

Indian Reorganization Act

1934 law ending allotment policies and encouraging tribal self-government.

Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act

1975 law allowing tribes to manage federal programs themselves.

Tribal sovereignty

The inherent authority of Indigenous tribes to govern themselves.

Trust doctrine

Legal principle that the federal government has a fiduciary duty to act in the best interests of tribes.

Guardianship theory

The idea that the federal government acts as a guardian responsible for protecting tribes.

Wardship

Legal concept describing tribes as wards under federal protection and authority.

Yurok natural resource management

The ways the Yurok people managed forests, rivers, and wildlife through long-standing ecological practices.

Yurok land loss

Loss of traditional territory due to colonization, logging, and government land policies.

Forest succession

The gradual ecological process in which plant communities change over time.

Spatial and temporal diversity

Variation in ecosystems across space and time that contributes to biodiversity and resilience.