Soc/Psy Special Topics Quiz

Misinformation effect

Incorporating “misinformation” into one’s memory of the event after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it. Ex.) After a minor car accident, several witnesses are interviewed. One woman originally remembered the car as dark blue. A week later, while talking with a friend who confidently mentioned that the car was black and had "definitely been speeding," she began to doubt her memory. When police followed up, she reported the car as black and said she was sure it was going very fast—details she hadn't actually seen herself. Her memory changed based on the way others described the event.

Minority influence

The process by which an individual or small group persuades a larger group to adopt their beliefs or behaviors. This occurs when the minority group acts as a force for social change by proposing innovative ideas and challenging existing norms Ex.) In a high school environmental club, most students think switching to reusable water bottles isn’t worth the effort. Only two members, Maya and Leo, keep bringing research, calmly arguing their points, and consistently showing up with their own reusable bottles every meeting. At first, people ignore them, but over time, their steady behavior starts to stand out. A few members begin trying reusable bottles too, then more students follow. Eventually, the club votes to launch a campus-wide eco-initiative encouraging reusable bottles.

Group decision-making

The process where multiple individuals analyze problems, evaluate alternatives, and choose a course of action collectively. Ex.) A group of friends is trying to decide where to go for spring break. Jenna wants the beach, Malik prefers a road trip to national parks, and Sarah suggests staying local to save money. Everyone shares their ideas, compares costs, checks weather forecasts, and talks about what they’d enjoy most. After discussing the pros and cons, they all vote and choose the beach because most of them want warm weather and relaxation. Even though Malik still likes the national park idea, he agrees to go along with the group’s final choice.

Juror bias

Juror bias refers to a juror's pre-existing beliefs, attitudes, and life experiences that influence their interpretation of evidence and ultimate verdict, often unconsciously. Ex.) A man named Carlos is on trial for stealing from a convenience store. During the trial, the evidence is unclear, and no one can clearly identify the thief in the security footage. However, one person on the jury, Megan, notices that Carlos has several tattoos and previously mentioned he had been unemployed for months. Even though this information isn’t related to the case itself, Megan assumes he is the kind of person who might commit a crime. When the jury begins deliberations, she pushes for a guilty verdict not because of strong evidence, but because she believes people who look and live like him are more likely to be troublemakers. A few other jurors start agreeing with her, influenced more by appearance and assumptions than by actual facts.

Confidence inflation

An unwarranted increase in a person's subjective certainty about their knowledge, memory, or ability, often influenced by external factors or internal cognitive processes. Ex.) Ella swears she left her keys on the kitchen table. She even describes how she placed them next to her coffee cup. After searching for 20 minutes, she finds them inside her jacket pocket instead. She still feels like her memory was correct the whole time.

Retelling

The process of recounting an event or story, which often involves social goals like entertaining or informing an audience, leading to memory distortions. Unlike a purely accurate recall, a social retelling is shaped by the speaker's goals and the audience, potentially resulting in changes such as exaggeration, omissions, or additions. This social context can affect memory accuracy over time. Ex.) After school, Maya witnessed an argument in the hallway between two students. When she told her friend about it later, she remembered some details clearly, but others she filled in based on what she thought happened. Each time she discussed the event with someone new, her story shifted slightly—she added reasons for why the boys were fighting, mentioned louder yelling than she originally recalled, and even described one of them pushing the other (even though she only thought she saw that part out of the corner of her eye). Over the next few days, more people repeated Maya’s version instead of what actually happened, and it eventually became the version most students believed.

Rehearsal

In social psychology, "rehearsal" can refer to behavioral rehearsal, a technique of practicing a skill in a controlled setting to improve real-life performance. It also has a cognitive component, as elaboration or maintenance rehearsal, where individuals mentally repeat information to keep it in memory or make meaningful connections for long-term retention. Ex.) Maria has a big presentation coming up in her psychology class. She wants to remember every key point, so on the bus ride home and again before bed, she quietly goes over her note cards again and again. She even speaks the introduction out loud while getting ready in the morning. By the time she stands in front of the class, the information feels automatic and easy to recall because she’s repeatedly gone over it beforehand.

Boomerang effect

This is when a persuasive message has the opposite of its intended effect, causing the audience to adopt the opposing position instead. Ex.) A school introduces a campaign telling students very strongly that they must stop using their phones during class, using posters with bold warnings and strict announcements. Instead of reducing phone use, many students begin using their phones even more, feeling like the school is trying to control them too much. Some start texting under the desk just to push back, and a few even brag about ignoring the rule.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating “misinformation” into one’s memory of the event after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it. Ex.) During a family gathering, Maya tells everyone about the time she saw a car accident last year. At first, she remembers only hearing a loud crash and seeing two cars stopped in the intersection. A week later, her cousin mentions that she thought one of the drivers was texting because she saw a phone on the seat. Over time, Maya starts retelling the story as if she herself saw the driver texting, even though she never actually did. Now, whenever she thinks back on the event, she confidently remembers details that came from her cousin's comment rather than her own memory.

Cognitive Restructuring

Is a therapeutic technique from cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) that involves identifying, evaluating, and changing negative or distorted thought patterns that contribute to emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors. Ex.) Jordan has a big presentation coming up, and the night before, he keeps thinking, "I'm going to mess up, everyone will think I'm dumb." His stress builds, and he feels like canceling. His friend Maya sits with him and helps him look at the situation differently. She asks him what evidence he has for failing and reminds him of other successful presentations he’s done. Jordan starts to replace the thought with, "I practiced, I know the material, and even if I slip up, it's not the end of the world."The next day he goes into work feeling more confident and gives the presentation calmly.

Social Influence Theory

The process by which individuals' or groups' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the presence of others. Ex.) During lunch at school, everyone in Mia’s friend group started putting their phones away and talking face-to-face. Mia usually spent the whole break scrolling, but when she noticed her friends chatting without screens, she felt awkward being the only one on her phone. The next day, she put hers away too, joining the conversation—eventually it became her new routine.

Illusory correlation

Perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists. Ex.)The link between ice cream sales and rising crime rates

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one’s ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Also known as the I knew-it-all-along phenomenon. Ex.) Someone might look back at a relationship and feel they "knew" it was going to end, listing tension and missed signs that were only recognized as significant after the breakup occurred.

Overconfidence phenomenon

The tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs. Ex.) A student who has studied for a test may feel very confident about their understanding of the material. If they have overconfidence in their knowledge, they might be shocked when they receive a lower-than-expected grade, despite their high confidence

Attribution Theory

The theory of how people explain others’ behavior—for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations. Ex.) Explaining why a student gets a good grade (e.g., internal attribution for hard work vs. external attribution for an easy test

Depressive explanatory style

is the habitual way individuals explain negative events to themselves, typically by attributing them to internal ("it's my fault"), stable ("it's always going to be this way"), and global ("it will affect everything I do") causes. Ex.) Mia’s team loses a game, and she thinks, "I’m terrible at sports. I’ll always mess up," so she stops joining practices.

Placebo effect

Is the phenomenon where a person experiences a genuine improvement in a condition due to a belief in the efficacy of a treatment, even if that treatment is inactive or "fake" Ex.) A student is convinced that a new energy drink will improve their focus during exams. Even though the drink is just flavored water with no actual stimulants, the student finds that they are able to concentrate better and feel more alert while studying and taking the test.

Social influence in therapy

how a therapist's or group's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors can change a client's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Cognitive distortions

Negative or irrational thought patterns that lead people to perceive reality inaccurately, impacting their emotions, behavior, and mental health. Ex.)

Overgeneralization: Jordan isn’t invited to one party and thinks they’ll always be alone.

• Catastrophizing: Maya forgets an email and fears she’s about to ruin her career.

• Personalization: Liam’s friend seems upset, and he immediately blames himself.

Gender differences

Refer to the ways gender roles, stereotypes, and norms influence mental and physical health outcomes and help-seeking behaviors. Ex.) During a group project, a boy and a girl both suggest ideas. The boy’s ideas are praised as “bold” and “creative,” while the girl’s similar ideas are called “nice” or “helpful.” She notices that people expect her to take notes or organize, while he is assumed to lead discussions.

Social Influence Theory

Describes how individuals' thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors are shaped by real or imagined social pressure from others. Ex.) Imagine you start a new job, and everyone in the office wears very formal clothing, even though the dress code is technically casual. On your first day, you feel a bit out of place in your casual outfit. By the end of the week, you notice you’ve started dressing more formally to fit in with your coworkers, even though you normally prefer casual clothes.

Memory Reconstruction Theory

Is the theory that memories are not exact recordings but are actively pieced together during recall, blending factual details with existing knowledge, beliefs, and social influences

Statistical prediction

The process of using statistical models to make educated guesses about future social and individual outcomes by analyzing patterns in past data. Ex.) A company notices that employees who spend more time in team-building activities tend to get promoted faster. The manager looks at the past data of all employees’ participation in these activities and their promotion history. Using this information, they estimate the likelihood that a new employee who participates actively in team-building will also get promoted quickly.

Expert intuition

The rapid, often unconscious, ability of an individual to understand and respond to complex social situations based on extensive experience, not conscious deliberation. Ex.) Alex has been teaching math for over 20 years. During a parent-teacher conference, a parent mentions their child is struggling with algebra. Without thinking much, Alex immediately suggests a few personalized strategies that usually work for students with similar difficulties. The parent is impressed by how quickly Alex identifies the problem and proposes effective solutions.