Topic 3: The communication process. Functions of language. Language in use. The negotiation of meaning.

(Introduction) The aim of this topic is to provide a thorough account of

the communication process, the functions of language, language in use and the negotiation of meaning.

(Introduction) The unit begins with the communication process,

its key elements, the various types of communication and its features (Widdowson, 1978).

(Introduction) It then considers the role of language in communication,

highlighting its different functions in social interaction (Bühler, 1923; Jakobson, 1960).

The unit also addresses important theoreticall perspectives on language and language use, such as

Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, the principles of pragmatics, and major theories like speech act theory and conversation analysis. Grice’s Cooperative principle is introduced as a key concept in understanding how speakers maintain effective communication.

Communication, from Latin communicare (share), is a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols or signs

(Merriam-Webster Dictionary).

Communication, from

Latin communicare (share),

"Communication is understood... as the exchange and negotiation of information between at least two individuals through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, oral and written/visual modes and production and comprehension processes"

(Canale, 1983)

Communication elements (R. Jakobson, 1960)

1. A Context, i.e. the co-text

2. An addresser or productive subject

3. An addressee or receptive subject

4. Contact

5. A common code

6. A message

According to R. Jakobson (1960),

any act of verbal communication is composed of six elements or factors (a context, an addresser, an addressee, contact, a common code, a message).

A context, i.e. the co-text (R. Jakobson)

The environment and additional verbal or non-verbal cues surrounding the message that influence how it is understood.

An addresser or productive subject (R. Jakobson)

a sender who is responsible for the production of the message by encoding it into a suitable code.

An addressee or receptive subject (R. Jakobson)

a receiver who is responsible for the reception of the message by decoding the message and interpreting the meaning.

Contact (R. Jakobson)

a channel or physical means used to transmit the message

A common code (R. Jakobson)

which in the case of language is an agreed system of signs and set of rules.

A message (R. Jakobson)

which is the encoded information being transmitted.

Types of communication (semiotics)

1. According to the exchange of information flow

   • One-way communication

   • Two-way communication

2. According to the system of signs used

   • Verbal

   • Non-verbal

The phenomenon of communication is one of the main issues within the field of Semiotics,

i.e., the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation.

Semiotics has established a differentiation of categories in order to analyse the process of communication:

According to the exchange of information flow (one-way communication or two-way communication) and according to the system of signs used (verbal or non verbal).

One-way communication (according to the exchange of information flow)

occurs when the receiver does not respond to the sender, such as in reading books or listening to radio programmes.

Two-way communication (according to the exchange of information flow)

occurs when there is a reciprocal exchange between the the sender and the receiver. The receiver not only receives the message but also responds, either verbally or non-verbally.

Verbal communication (according to the system of signs used)

when language is used

Non-verbal communication (according to the system of signs used)

when gestures, facial expressions, body language are used to convey meaning.

Language carries out two major functions:

1. It is the fundamental means for thought, within the mind

2. and as Crystal (1985) says, it is an essential tool for communication.

As Crystal (1985) says, language is

an essential tool for communication

Language is

the fundamental means for thought, within the mind

According to Widdowson (1978), communication can be described as possessing the following features:

• It is a social interaction, characterised by creativity and unpredictability.

• It takes place within socio-cultural contexts, which constrain the appropriateness of language use.

• It may be affected by psychological factors such as memory, fatigue and distractions

• It always has a purpose and it involves authentic language

• Success is determined by the actual outcome of communicative act.

(Widdowson, 1978) Communication is a social interaction

characterised by creativity and unpredictability

(Widdowson, 1978) Communication takes place within

socio-cultural contexts, which constrain the appropriateness of language use.

(Widdowson, 1978) Communication may be affected by

psychological factors such as memory, fatigue and distractions

(Widdowson, 1978) Communication always has

a purpose and it involves authentic language

(Widdowson, 1978) In communication, success is determined by

the actual outcome of communicative act.

According to the historical tradition, there have been many different theories regarding the functions of language, but here we will centre on the most important ones:

A) From Plato’s distinction of first, second and third or general person, Karl Bühler (1923) distinguished three language functions:

1. Representational

2. Expressive

3. Conative

B) Roman Jakobson (1960), from the Prague Linguistic Circle, extended Bühler’s model with three more functions:

1. The referential function

2. The emotive or expressive function

3. The conative function

4. The phatic or contact function

5. The metalinguistic function

6. The aesthetic or poetic function

From Plato’s distinction of first, second and third or general person, psychologist Karl Bühler (1923) distinguished three language functions:

1. Representational

2. Expressive

3. Conative

Representational (Karl Bühler, 1923)

It connects the message to the reality that the subjects share.

Expressive (Karl Bühler, 1923)

It refers to the speaker's attitude towards the message, the referent and the context of communication.

Conative (Karl Bühler, 1923)

The message is intended to influence the receiver’s behaviour, thought or attitude.

Roman Jakobson (1960), from the Prague Linguistic Circle, extended Bühler’s model with three more functions:

1. Referential function

2. The emotive or expressive fuction

3. The conative function

4. The Phatic or contact function

5. The metalinguistic function

6. The aesthetic or poetic function

The referential function (Roman Jakobson, 1960)

is oriented towards the context or referent, the most obvious one to express and assess facts, e.g. It’s ten o’clock. It is used in scientific documents.

The emotive or expressive function (Roman Jakobson, 1960)

is oriented to the speaker. Speaker’s feelings or attitude towards the message. E.g. I’m so happy today. It is used in personal letters.

The conative function (Roman Jakobson, 1960)

is directed towards the hearer. Its goal is to provoke a certain reaction in the hearer. For instance, expressing orders or suggestions like Please close the window. It is used in advertisements.

The phatic or contact function (Roman Jakobson, 1960)

is directed to the channel of communication. It ensures that communication is taking place effectively, e.g. Can you hear me? It is used in conversational texts.

The metalinguistic function (Roman Jakobson, 1960)

is addressed to the code or language being used, it is used to clarify the meaning of a concept e.g. What do you mean by... ?, and also to speak about the language itself. It is used in linguistic science.

The aesthetic or poetic function (Roman Jakobson, 1960)

is oriented to the message itself, focusing on the form to express the message, e.g. using rhetorical figures. Through poetic language, the speaker produces an aesthetic effect on the hearer. It is used in poetry.

Which function is used in scientific documents?

The referential function

Which function is used in personal letters?

The emotive or expressive function

Which function is used in advertisements?

The conative function

Which function is used in conversational texts?

The phatic or contact function

Which function is used in linguistic science?

The metalinguistic function

Which function is used in poetry?

The aesthetic or poetic function

The term language in use refers to

the study of language in interaction, not as a written code.

The study of language in use can be approached from several perspectives

First, language in use is language placed in a context. Second, it can be analysed from the Speech Act Theory. Third, it can also be analysed from the point of view of Conversation Analysis. Finally, it is also possible to approach language in use from the point of view of Grice’s Cooperative Principle.

First, language in use is

language placed in a context.

Second, language in use can be analysed from

the Speech Act Theory.

Third, language in use can also be analysed from the point of view of

conversation analysis.

Finally, it is also possible to approach language in use from the point of view of

Grice’s Cooperative Principle.

Ferdinand di Saussure recognised the difference between langue and parole.

• Langue: the system of linguistic signs, set of rules and shared norms that allow people to communicate. It is abstract.

• Parole: the actual use of the system of linguistic signs carried out by speakers.

Langue (Saussure)

The system of linguistic signs, set of rules and shared norms that allow people to communicate. It is abstract.

Parole (Saussure)

The actual use of the system carried out by speakers.

Whereas changes or alterations in the langue are slow and depend on the community of speakers,

modification of parole depends on individual factors and on physical or social restrictions on the situation of speaking.

Changes or alteration in the langue are

slow and depend on the community of speakers

Modification of parole depends on

individual factors and physical or social restrictions on the situation of speaking.

This dichotomy (Langue-parole) is similar to Chomsky’s

linguistic competence, i.e., speaker’s knowledge about the language, and performance which refers to the practical use of that knowledge in actual communication.

Linguistic competence (Chomsky)

speaker’s knowledge about the language

Performance (Chomsky)

the practical use of that knowledge in actual communication.

Pragmatics is

the discipline that studies the interpretation of the intended meaning conveyed in a speech act. Pragmatics explores the meaning beyond the literal content.

Pragmatics explores the meaning

beyond the literal content.

(pragmatics) Several aspects in the act of communication must be considered such as

• Body position

• Pitch

• Stress

which contribute to produce the intended message.

(Pragmatics) Additionally, communication strategies such as

hesitations or silence are also part of the communication process.

Pragmatics studies:

• Speech acts and their implications

• Conversational and discourse analysis

• and deictic elements.

Speech act theory is

a subfield of pragmatics that studies how words are used not only to present information but also to perform actions.

Who introduced Speech act theory (subfield of pragmatics)?

Speech act theory was introduced by J. L. Austin but it was further developed by John Searle.

Speech act theory was introduced by

J. L. Austin and further developed by John Searle.

(Speech act theory) Austin recognised three general types of speech act, which he called

1. Locutionary

2. Illocutionary

3. and perlocutionary.

A locutionary act (J. L. Austin)

an identifiable set of words or sentences

An illocutionary act (J. L. Austin)

the intention behind the utterance, what the speaker wants to achieve.

A perlocutionary act (J. L. Austin)

consists of an act resulting from the illocutionary act.

A speech act is

any utterance that performs an action. Speech acts have been categorized differently by many authors, although Searle’s (1976) classification is the most widely accepted

Searle’s (1976) classification of speech acts:

1. Assertive

2. Directive

3. Commissive

4. Expressive

5. Declarative

Assertive (Searle’s classification, 1976)

Statements that describe a situation or express a belief.

Example: “No one makes a better cake than me”.

Directive (Searle’s classification, 1976)

They try to make the addressee perform an action.

Example: “Could you close the door?”.

Commissive (Searle’s classification, 1976)

They commit the speaker to doing something in the future.

Example: “I promise to call you tomorrow”.

Expressive (Searle’s classification, 1976)

They express how the speaker feels about the situation.

Example: “I am sorry for your loss”.

Declarative (Searle’s classification, 1976)

They change the state of the world in an immediate way.

Examples: “You are fired”.

Speech act theory has led to the design of

the notional-functional syllabus in language teaching.

(In teaching) Emphasis has shifted from language structure to

language use.

Conversation Analysis

analyses the structure of conversation and its minimal components and sequences; it attempts to describe the way in which a conversation takes place.

What does Conversation Analysis analyse?

• The structure of conversation

• its minimal components

• and sequences

Levinson (1983) provides a comprehensive overview of this approach (Conversation analysis):

1. Conversation is characterised by turn-taking

2. A type of turn-taking is an adjacency pair such as question-answer

Conversation is characterised by turn-taking (Levinson, 1983)

One participant talks, stops, another starts, stops (A-B-A-B). However, conversational exchanges are not as neat as this ideal sequence implies since there can be cases of overlap and gaps in communication.

A type of turn-taking is an adjacency pair such as question-answer (Levinson, 1983)

Levinson explains that conversations are not random exchanges but are organised in structured sequences.

Similarly (to an adjacency pair), in conversation there are certain recurrent kinds of sequence

definable only over three of four more turns like the prototypical telephone call.

The Cooperative principle (Grice, 1975)

It was formulated by linguistic philosopher Grice. It applies to both speaker and listener. Grice’s cooperative principle suggests that participants in a conversation should cooperate to achieve mutual understanding.

The cooperative principle (Grice, 1975) proposes that there are four maxims that we keep to create effective and cooperative communication

1. Maxim of quality: the content must be real.

2. Maxim of quantity: provide the right amount of information.

3. Maxim of relevance: content must be relevant.

4. Maxim of manner: message must be clear and easy to understand.

Maxim of quality (Grice, 1975)

the content must be real

Maxim of quantity (Grice, 1975)

provide the right amount of information.

Maxim of relevance (Grice, 1975)

content must be relevant.

Maxim of manner (Grice, 1975)

message must be clear and easy to understand.

The negotiation of meaning

is an important part of the process of communication. It allows the adjustments that are needed for successful communication.

Some factors affect the process of negotiation of meaning, i.e.

conversational strategies and communication strategies.

Conversation strategies aim at

ensuring that speaker and listeners have a common understanding of the intended meaning.