AP Gov Unit 5

PAC (Political Action Committee)

Political committee that raises and spends money to elect or defeat candidates. Most represent businesses, labor unions, or ideological interests. Contribution amounts are set by law. Often the political contribution wing of an interest group.

Electioneering

Persuading voters to support specific candidates, usually via media such as TV

Super PACs

Officially "independent expenditure-only committees" that are free of most campaign finance constraints. Cannot coordinate directly with candidates or political parties. Must disclose donors and report to the FEC. Can raise and spend unlimited amounts.

527 Groups

Tax-exempt groups organized to raise money for political activities like voter mobilization and issue advocacy. Raised unlimited "soft money" but couldn't "expressly advocate" for/against federal candidates. Example: Swift Boat Veterans for Truth.

501(c)(4) Groups

"Social welfare" organizations that can receive and spend "dark money" contributions without disclosing donor information, as long as they spend less than 50% on politics.

Hard Money

Regulated contributions from individual or PAC to federal candidate, party committee, or PAC. Subject to contribution limits and prohibitions. Can be used to directly support or oppose a candidate and fund TV ads, bumper stickers, and communications mentioning specific candidates.

Soft Money

Contributions made outside federal contribution limits and guidelines to state/local party, state/local candidate, or outside interest group. Not supposed to support/oppose federal candidates. Used for state/local elections and party building activities like voter registration and GOTV drives.

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) - 1974

Started modern campaign finance reform after Watergate. Required campaigns to disclose donation information, set dollar limits on campaign donations, and established federal regulatory agency (FEC) to enforce rules.

Buckley v. Valeo (1976)

Early SCOTUS case on campaign finance that allowed limits on campaign donations for individuals and PACs, but struck down limits on independent expenditures, total contributions across races, and candidates using their own wealth.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) - 2002

Also called McCain-Feingold Act. Banned soft money contributions to political parties, increased individual contribution limits with inflation adjustments, and banned "electioneering communications" by independent expenditure groups within 30/60 days of primary/general election.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Landmark Supreme Court decision holding that corporate funding of independent political broadcasts cannot be limited under First Amendment (independent campaign spending = free speech). Struck down "electioneering" clause of BCRA. Opened the door for Super PACs. Unions and corporations can now spend directly from treasuries.

Matching Funds

Public money available to presidential candidates for primary campaigns. Candidate must meet threshold requirements showing public support and agree to restrictions including spending limits. Candidates increasingly decline these funds to avoid spending restrictions.

Scorekeeper Role

Media acting as horse race journalist, focusing on who's ahead/behind in polls. Emphasizes winning and losing rather than policy substance. Tracks campaign strategy and electoral math. Example: "Nikki's up! Pence is down!"

Gatekeeper Role

Media controlling which stories/issues receive public attention and what gets on the agenda in the first place. Decides what information reaches the public, determines which candidates get coverage, and filters and prioritizes news.

Watchdog Role

Media investigating and exposing government wrongdoing. Holds politicians and officials accountable through investigative journalism and checks abuse of power. Examples: Clinton's emails, George Santos' scandals.

Agenda Setting

Media's ability to influence which issues the public thinks are important. Doesn't tell people what to think, but what to think about. Coverage determines public priorities and shapes political discourse. Key function as linkage institution.

Framing

How media presents/packages information affects interpretation. Same story can be told different ways to emphasize different aspects, influencing how audience understands and evaluates issues and shaping public opinion.

Priming

Media emphasis on certain issues affects the criteria people use to evaluate politicians. Coverage of specific topics makes those topics more salient in voters' minds and influences what standards voters use to judge candidates.

Horse Race Journalism

Media coverage focused on campaign strategy, polls, and who's winning. Emphasizes competition over substance with less focus on policy positions and qualifications. Similar to scorekeeper role. Increasingly common in cable news era.

Partisan Media

News outlets with clear ideological perspective (e.g., Fox News conservative, MSNBC liberal). Presents news through political lens and can contribute to political polarization. Part of expanding range of ideological perspectives in media.

Media Bias

Tendency of journalists/outlets to present news with particular slant through story selection, framing, or emphasis. Types include selection bias, coverage bias, and statement bias. Challenges traditional journalistic objectivity.

Social Media

Digital platforms for sharing content and communication (Twitter/X, Facebook, Instagram, TikTok). Allows direct candidate-to-voter communication, spreads information rapidly, and enables grassroots organizing and fundraising. Major shift in campaign strategy.

Earned Media

Free publicity through news coverage that candidate doesn't pay for. Must earn attention through newsworthy actions/statements. Trump famously maximized earned media in 2016.

Paid Media

Campaign advertisements purchased by candidates including TV ads, radio ads, and digital ads. Allows complete message control but is very expensive, especially TV in swing states.

New Media

Digital/internet-based communication platforms including social media, blogs, podcasts, and streaming. Interactive and participatory, democratizes information distribution. Challenges traditional media gatekeepers.

Motor Voter Law (1993)

National Voter Registration Act that allowed voter registration at DMV and social service agencies. Made registration easier and more accessible, increasing registration rates.

Early Voting

Casting ballot before Election Day. Available in most states, includes in-person early voting and vote-by-mail. Makes voting more convenient and increases turnout.

Absentee Voting

Voting by mail when unable to vote in person. Traditionally required excuse in many states but expanded significantly during COVID-19. Some states now have no-excuse absentee voting.

Political Efficacy

Belief that one's political participation matters. Internal efficacy is belief in one's own competence; external efficacy is belief government responds to citizens. Strong predictor of political participation.

Rational Choice Voting

Theory that voters make decisions based on self-interest, weighing costs vs. benefits of voting. Problem: costs often outweigh individual benefits. Doesn't fully explain why people vote.

Retrospective Voting

Voting based on past performance. Asks "Are you better off than 4 years ago?" or "what you know Joe Biden did." Rewards/punishes incumbents for results. Common in presidential elections.

Prospective Voting

Voting based on candidates' plans for the future or "what you think Joe Biden will do." Evaluates proposed policies and promises through forward-looking decision making. Requires more voter information.

Party-Line Voting

Voting for all candidates from one party, also called straight-ticket voting. Requires less information/effort from voters. Increasing due to partisan polarization. Traditional party affiliation/identification plays big role.

Realignment

Major, lasting shift in party coalitions and voter allegiances. Examples: Civil War era (Republicans dominant), New Deal Coalition (Democrats dominant), 1968-present (competitive). Creates new patterns of party support.

Dealignment

Weakening of party loyalties and decline in party identification among voters. Voters become more independent and less tied to traditional party affiliations. Contributes to split-ticket voting.

National Party Convention

Quadrennial meeting where parties officially nominate presidential candidates, adopt party platform, unite party factions, and generate media coverage and enthusiasm for the campaign.

Interest Groups

Organizations that seek to influence public policy without running candidates for office. Proliferate in U.S. due to diversity of interests. Much more present than in other democracies. "K Street" in Washington. Types: economic, labor, business, farm, public interest, single issue, government.

Lobbying

Direct communication with government officials to influence policy. Major activity of interest groups. Lobbyists working directly with Congress must be registered. Provides information to Congress, builds grassroots support, and shapes legislation.

Iron Triangle

Close, stable relationship among congressional committee, bureaucratic agency, and interest group in specific policy area. Mutually beneficial but criticized as elitist and resistant to change. Example: defense contractors, Pentagon, armed services committees.

Issue Networks

Loose, diverse coalitions of interest groups, officials, activists, and experts around specific issues. More open and fluid than iron triangles. Includes wider range of participants and perspectives.

Pluralism

Theory that competition among diverse interest groups ensures democratic representation. No single group dominates; policy emerges from bargaining and compromise. Positive view of interest group politics.

Elitism

Theory that small, wealthy, powerful elite dominates policymaking despite appearance of democracy. Interest groups mainly benefit already-powerful interests. Critique of pluralism suggesting unequal influence.

Hyperpluralism

Theory that too many competing interest groups fragment and weaken government, making coherent policy impossible. Government gridlock results from trying to please everyone. Potential downside of proliferation of groups.

Free Rider Problem

Individuals benefit from group's work without contributing (joining or paying). Undermines collective action. Interest groups address this through selective benefits available only to members.

Collective Good

Benefit that cannot be denied to non-contributors once provided (clean air, safe streets). Creates free rider problem because everyone benefits whether they participate or not.

Selective Benefits

Benefits available only to group members (discounts, magazines, networking). Used to overcome free rider problem and incentivize joining. Example: AARP discounts for members.

PAC (Political Action Committee)

Political arm of interest group that donates money to candidates. Subject to contribution limits. Must have at least 50 members. Created through FECA reforms after Watergate. Major way interest groups influence elections.

Electioneering

Campaign activities like running ads mentioning candidates near elections. BCRA banned this by corporations/unions within 30/60 days of elections, but Citizens United struck down this restriction.

Open Primary

Primary election where voters can choose which party's primary to vote in regardless of their own party registration. Allows crossover voting and independent participation.

Closed Primary

Primary election where only registered party members can vote in that party's primary. Protects party from outside influence but limits participation.

Caucus

Meeting of party members to select candidates through discussion and voting. More time-intensive than primaries. Iowa caucuses are first major contest in presidential nominations. Favors organized, committed activists.

Incumbent Advantage

Built-in electoral benefits for officeholders seeking reelection. Especially huge in congressional elections. Includes name recognition, franking privilege, casework, fundraising ease, and media coverage. Creates "sophomore surge" or "freshman surge."

Gerrymandering

Redrawing district boundaries to favor one party. Creates uncompetitive, "safe" districts. Plagues congressional elections. Can pack (concentrate opposition) or crack (spread opposition thin). Reduces competitiveness.

Malapportionment

Unequal population sizes in legislative districts, giving some voters more representation than others. Mostly resolved by "one person, one vote" court decisions, but still relevant in some contexts.

Electoral College

System where states cast electoral votes (equal to House + Senate seats) to elect president. Winner-take-all in 48 states. Candidate needs 270 to win. Flaws: can elect popular vote loser, focuses campaigns on swing states, gives small states disproportionate power.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Landmark legislation banning discriminatory voting practices (literacy tests, poll taxes). Required preclearance for voting changes in covered jurisdictions. Dramatically increased African American voter registration. Weakened by Shelby County v. Holder (2013).

Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

Supreme Court decision striking down preclearance formula in Voting Rights Act. Led to new voter ID laws and voting restrictions in previously covered states. Republicans support as preventing fraud; Democrats oppose as voter suppression.

15th Amendment

Prohibited denying voting rights based on race, color, or previous servitude. Ratified 1870 after Civil War. Circumvented by poll taxes, literacy tests, and white primaries until Voting Rights Act.

19th Amendment

Granted women's suffrage. Ratified 1920 after decades of suffragist movement. Extended voting rights to roughly half the population.

23rd Amendment

Granted electoral votes to Washington DC (equal to least populous state, currently 3). Ratified 1961. DC residents can now vote for president.

26th Amendment

Lowered voting age from 21 to 18. Ratified 1971 during Vietnam War era. Argument: if old enough to be drafted, old enough to vote.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

Federal agency that regulates broadcast media (radio, TV, cable). Created by Communications Act of 1934. Limits market dominance, grants broadcast licenses. Far less regulation of cable and internet. Deregulation increased after Telecommunications Act of 1996.

Net Neutrality

Principle that internet service providers must treat all content, sites, and apps equally without preferential treatment. Prevents fast lanes for some content. Debated FCC policy regarding internet regulation.

Adversarial Journalism

Journalism that adopts skeptical, challenging stance toward government and officials. Investigative approach that questions official narratives. Contrasts with earlier party press era. Can involve leaks and exposés.

Press Conference

Staged event where officials answer reporters' questions. Allows politicians to communicate to public through media while maintaining some control. Part of symbiotic but adversarial relationship between media and government.

Leaks

Unofficial release of information to press, often by government insiders. Promoted by separation of powers and checks and balances system. Can expose wrongdoing or serve political purposes. Reporters must balance using leaks with maintaining government contacts.

Echo Chamber

Media environment where people encounter only information confirming existing beliefs. Created by selective attention to particular sources, algorithms, and narrowcasting. Reinforces ideological perspectives and contributes to polarization.

Narrowcasting

Media targeting specific demographic, ideological, or interest groups rather than mass audience. Enabled by cable TV and internet. Allows tailored content but fragments shared information space. Contrasts with traditional broadcast model.

Infotainment

Blending of news/information with entertainment. Blurs line between serious journalism and entertainment. Criticized for prioritizing engagement over education. Makes coverage more superficial and sensationalistic.

Citizen Journalism

News reporting by ordinary citizens rather than professional journalists, often via social media. Democratizes news production but raises questions about accuracy, ethics, and verification.

Linkage Institution

Structure connecting people to government. Examples: political parties, interest groups, elections, media. Transmits public preferences to policymakers and helps shape public opinion.

Muckrakers

Investigative journalists in early 20th century who exposed corruption, unsafe conditions, and abuses. Part of Progressive Era reform movements. Examples: Upton Sinclair, Ida Tarbell. Established watchdog tradition.

Sensationalism

Media coverage emphasizing dramatic, shocking, or emotional aspects of stories to attract audience. Driven by profit motive and competition. Criticized for making news less useful and educational (College Board emphasis). Increasingly common with cable news.

Objectivity in Journalism

Standard of neutral, fair, balanced reporting without bias. Expected today but evolved over time (early newspapers were partisan). Reflected in journalistic codes of ethics. Challenged by partisan media and claims of "fake news."

Fake News

False or misleading information presented as news. Term also used politically to dismiss unfavorable coverage. Decreases faith in credibility of mainstream sources. Major concern in social media era with rapid information spread.

Telecommunications Act of 1996

Major deregulation of media industries allowing more consolidation and cross-ownership. Led to fewer, larger corporate media owners. Reduced FCC restrictions while maintaining some market limits.

K Street

Street in Washington DC where many lobbying firms are located. Shorthand for lobbying industry and interest group influence. Symbolizes power of organized interests in policymaking.

Policy Agenda

Set of issues receiving serious attention from policymakers and public. Media plays key role through agenda setting. Interest groups compete to get issues on agenda. What government considers acting on.

Social Movements

Broad-based collective efforts to promote or resist social change. More diffuse than interest groups. Can spawn new interest groups. Examples: civil rights movement, environmental movement, Tea Party.

Independent Expenditures

Campaign spending by groups or individuals not coordinated with candidates. Cannot be limited after Buckley v. Valeo and Citizens United decisions. Justified as free speech. Super PACs make independent expenditures.

Coordination

Direct communication or cooperation between candidate campaign and outside group. Prohibited for Super PACs. If coordination occurs, spending counts as contribution subject to limits. Distinction sometimes difficult to enforce in practice.