becoming American (1776-1800)

Historiography

The study and interpretation of historical writings.

George Bancroft's view of the American Revolution

Bancroft argued that the American Revolution was initiated by divine providence aiming for 'everlasting peace' and celebrated it as a unique political experiment.

Carl Becker's interpretation of the American Revolution

Becker viewed the American Revolution as a political struggle among colonists over who should govern post-independence.

Charles Beard's argument regarding the Constitution

Beard claimed that the Founding Fathers created the Constitution primarily to protect their own economic interests.

Social historians' perspective on the American Revolution

Historians like Gary B. Nash argued that the American Revolution was fueled by the frustrations of impoverished colonists and included the experiences of marginalized people.

Gordon S. Wood's view on the Constitution

Wood suggested the Constitution was a progressive attempt to salvage the Revolution while also restraining its excesses.

James Madison's perspective on government

Madison stated that the 'great difficulty' in creating a government lies in enabling it to control the governed while also being controlled itself.

Paul A. Gilje's interpretation of the Constitution

Gilje viewed the Constitution as a 'conservative coup d'état' that aimed to suppress local democratic revolutions and facilitate economic development.

The term 'ongoing revolution' in relation to the Constitution

This term suggests that the Constitution represented a continued effort to build upon revolutionary ideals while addressing the weaknesses of earlier governance.

The term 'conservative coup d'état' regarding the Constitution

This term implies that the Constitutional Convention sought to counteract the democratic trends occurring at local levels.

Federalists

Supporters of the U.S. Constitution and its ratification, who played a key role in establishing the new republic and held most positions in the government, including Washington’s cabinet. They advocated for a strong central government.

George Washington's cabinet appointments

Included prominent figures such as Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, Henry Knox as Secretary of War, and Edmund Randolph as Attorney General, each bringing diverse perspectives to the administration.

Hamilton's Report on Public Credit

Recommended that the federal government honor all its debts to establish creditworthiness and suggested the government assume state debts, laying the foundation for a robust financial system.

National Bank proposal

Hamilton's proposal to create a Bank of the United States aimed at stabilizing the economy, regulating currency, and managing federal revenues to promote economic growth.

Jefferson's vision vs. Hamilton's vision

Jefferson idealized a nation of agrarian, self-sufficient citizens who valued farming, while Hamilton believed in fostering a commercial economy centered on banking, industry, and trade.

Strict vs. loose constructionists

Strict constructionists, like Jefferson, believed in only exercising powers specifically mentioned in the Constitution, whereas loose constructionists, like Hamilton, utilized the implied powers clause to justify a broader interpretation of federal authority.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution intended to guarantee individual rights and address concerns from Anti-Federalists about potential government overreach and the protection of liberties.

Tariff Act of 1789

Legislation passed by Congress imposing duties on imports to raise revenue for the new government while also protecting fledgling American industries from foreign competition.

Political discord in Washington's cabinet

Significant division between Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans arose over Hamilton's financial program, leading to ideological battles that shaped the early political landscape of the nation.

The significance of the Dinner Table Bargain

Jefferson's agreement to support Hamilton's financial plans in exchange for the relocation of the national capital to Washington, D.C., which helped secure political compromises during a contentious period.

Challenges faced by revolutionary leaders

Divisions among leaders and demands from ordinary men and women for political participation.

State constitutions in 1776

John Adams urged independent colonies to create their own constitutions prioritizing republican governance and checks and balances.

Pennsylvania's 1776 constitution

Emphasized democratic principles, limited executive power, and broadened voting rights to all free male citizens who met certain criteria.

Massachusetts Constitution of 1780

Created a stronger executive, limited voting to property owners, and implemented a bicameral legislature.

Republicanism

A political philosophy advocating for governance by representatives rather than a monarch, requiring civic virtue from citizens.

Articles of Confederation

The first national constitution of the United States, emphasizing state sovereignty and lacking a strong national government.

Civic Virtue

The willingness to prioritize public good over personal interests, deemed necessary for effective governance.

Democracy vs. Republicanism

Democracy involves majority rule potentially at the expense of minority rights, while republicanism limits participation to property owners believed to possess civic virtue.

First national government of the United States

Established under the Articles of Confederation in 1781, it favored state rights and lacked the ability to tax or enforce laws.

Historical significance of 1789

The year the U.S. Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation, establishing a stronger federal government.

Economic crisis in the 1780s

The inability of the Continental Congress to levy taxes led to severe economic problems and social unrest, with rampant inflation affecting soldiers, laborers, and farmers.

Continental dollars

Paper money issued by the Continental Congress during the Revolutionary War, which became devalued and contributed to runaway inflation.

Shays' Rebellion

An armed uprising by farmers in western Massachusetts against the state government in 1786-87, demanding debt relief and changes to the state constitution.

Three-Fifths Compromise

A Constitutional Convention agreement counting each enslaved person as three-fifths of a White person for representation and taxation purposes.

Great Compromise

The Constitutional Convention agreement establishing a bicameral legislature with equal representation in the Senate and proportional representation in the House of Representatives.

Electoral College

The system established in the Constitution for electing the President and Vice-President, based on the number of congressional representatives each state has.

Daniel Shays

A former Continental Army captain who became a leader in Shays' Rebellion, protesting against high taxes and foreclosures.

James Madison

The 4th President of the United States, key figure in drafting the Constitution, and author of the Federalist Papers.

Alexander Hamilton

The 1st Secretary of the Treasury, a leading figure in the Federalist Party, and the architect of the nation's financial system.

George Washington

The 1st President of the United States, known for establishing the tradition of a two-term limit.

Federalists

Supporters of the 1787 Constitution who argued for a strong central government that could best protect individual liberty through a system of checks and balances.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents to the ratification of the Constitution who believed it would consolidate power in a national government and infringe upon individual liberties.

The Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay advocating for the ratification of the Constitution.

Checks and balances

A system implemented by the Constitution that ensures no one branch of government can dominate the others, preserving individual liberty.

Tyranny of the majority

A concern among Federalists that direct democracy could lead to a situation where the majority's interests could oppress minority rights.

Compound republic

A concept articulated by James Madison describing a government where power is divided between national and state levels, each with its own distinct responsibilities.

Bill of Rights

A list of individual liberties that Anti-Federalists argued should be included in the Constitution to protect against government infringement.

Tyranny of the majority

A concern among Federalists that direct democracy could lead to a situation where the majority's interests could oppress minority rights.

Compound republic

A concept articulated by James Madison describing a government where power is divided between national and state levels, each with its own distinct responsibilities.

Bill of Rights

A list of individual liberties that Anti-Federalists argued should be included in the Constitution to protect against government infringement.

Notable Federalists

Key figures who supported the Constitution, including Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay, and John Adams.

Notable Anti-Federalists

Key figures who opposed the Constitution, including Samuel Adams, John Hancock, Patrick Henry, and Melancton Smith.

Alexander Hamilton

First secretary of the treasury, leading figure in the Federalist Party, key advisor to George Washington, and architect of the nation’s financial system.

John Jay

American diplomat, patriot, author of the Federalist Papers, and first chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

Patrick Henry

American revolutionary who was an outspoken critic of the Constitutional Convention and the Federalists.

Democratic-Republican societies

Grassroots organizations that emerged in opposition to Federalist policies, advocating for limited government and individual liberties during the 1790s.

Whiskey Rebellion

A 1794 uprising of farmers in western Pennsylvania to protest a federal excise tax on whiskey, which they viewed as favoring eastern commercial interests.

Alien and Sedition Acts

A series of laws enacted in 1798 by the Federalist administration aimed at suppressing dissent against the government and limiting immigration.

Revolution of 1800

The peaceful transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans, marking the first time in U.S. history that one political party transitioned power to another.

Nullification

The theory that a state has the right to invalidate any federal law that it believes violates the Constitution.

Partisan

An individual or institution that actively supports or defends the interests of a political party.

Justification Act

An act enacted in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts that outlined the rationale for state-level resistance to federal laws deemed unconstitutional.

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

Political statements drafted in 1798 that argued the Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional and introduced the concept of nullification.