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Developmental Psychology
The scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life.
Stability and Change
Concepts in developmental psychology that explore the consistency and variability of behavior over time.
Nature vs. Nurture
The debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development.
Cross-Sectional Research
A type of study that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.
Continuous and Discontinuous Stages of Development
Models describing whether development occurs gradually or through distinct stages.
Longitudinal Research
A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods.
Teratogens
Environmental agents that can harm the developing fetus.
Maternal Illnesses
Diseases or health conditions of the mother that can adversely affect the fetus.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, causing physical and cognitive defects.
Genetic Mutations
Changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to developmental anomalies or diseases.
Rooting
A reflex in infants that involves turning the head toward a stimulus, like a nipple.
Visual Cliff
An experimental setup used to test depth perception in infants.
Critical Periods
Specific time frames during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned.
Sensitive Periods
Times in development when an individual is particularly receptive to certain types of learning.
Spermarch
The onset of sperm production in males, marking the beginning of male puberty.
Menopause
The cessation of menstruation and the end of a woman's reproductive years.
Imprinting
A form of rapid learning occurring in a sensitive period, often seen in young animals.
Habituation
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.
Maturation
The process of development in which an individual reaches full functional capacity.
Adolescence
A transitional stage of physical and psychological development occurring between ages 10 to 19.
Puberty
The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction.
Primary Sex Characteristics
Physical differences between male and female bodies that are directly related to reproduction.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Features that appear during puberty which are not directly related to reproduction.
Menarch
The first occurrence of menstruation in females.
Sex
The biological distinction between male and female.
Gender
The roles, behaviors, activities, and expectations that society considers appropriate for men and women.
Sexual Orientation
A person's emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to individuals of the same or opposite gender.
Role
A set of expected behaviors associated with a particular social position.
Gender Role
The behaviors and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men or women.
Gender Identity
A personal conception of oneself as male, female, a blend of both, or neither.
Social Learning Theory
The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating others.
Gender Typing
The process by which children learn the behaviors deemed appropriate for their gender.
Androgyny
The presence of both masculine and feminine characteristics in a person.
Social Script
Culturally provided guidelines for behavior in social situations.
Cognition
The mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension.
Jean Piaget
A developmental psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children.
Schema
A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.
Assimilation
The process of taking in new information and incorporating it into existing schemas.
Accommodation
The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.
Sensorimotor Stage
The first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, from birth to about 2 years, where infants learn through interaction with the environment.
Object Permanence
The awareness that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
Preoperational Stage
Piaget's second stage of development, from ages 2 to 7, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.
Conservation
The understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same, even when their forms change.
Reversibility
The understanding that actions can be reversed to return to the original state.
Egocentrism
The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and someone else's.
Theory of Mind
The ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that differ from one's own.
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget's third stage, where children gain a better understanding of mental operations and think logically about concrete events.
Formal Operational Stage
Piaget's final stage of cognitive development, beginning around age 12, characterized by abstract thinking.
Lev Vygotsky
A Russian psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development.
Scaffold
Supportive measures provided during the learning process, which helps learners achieve higher levels of understanding.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with guidance.
Crystallized Intelligence
The ability to use learned knowledge and experience.
Dementia
A decline in cognitive function severe enough to interfere with daily life.
Language
A system of symbols that allows people to communicate.
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound in a language.
Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in a language.
Cooing
Early stage of language development in infants, characterized by the production of vowel-like sounds.
Babbling
The stage of language development where infants produce random combinations of sounds.
One-Word Stage
A stage in language acquisition where a child speaks single words to convey whole ideas.
Two-Word Stage
The stage of language development where children begin to combine two words into simple sentences.
Telegraphic Speech
The early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—using mostly nouns and verbs.
Overgeneralization
The application of a grammatical rule too widely, resulting in incorrect forms.
Semantics
The study of meaning in language.
Grammar
The system of rules governing the structure of sentences in a language.
Syntax
The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences.
Universal Grammar (UG)
The theory that the ability to learn language is innate to humans and that all languages share a common structural basis.
Aphasia
A language disorder that affects a person's ability to communicate.
Broca’s Area
A region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.
Wernicke’s Area
A region in the brain associated with language comprehension.
Linguistic Determinism
The theory that language influences and determines thoughts.
Linguistic Relativity
The principle that language has an effect on the way its speakers perceive the world.
Ecological Systems Theory
A framework for understanding the multiple influences on human development.
Microsystem
The immediate environment in which a person interacts.
Mesosystem
The interactions and relationships between different microsystems.
Exosystem
Social settings that affect an individual but do not involve them directly.
Macrosystem
The larger cultural context in which the microsystem and exosystem are embedded.
Chronosystem
The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course.
Attachment
The emotional bond that forms between infants and caregivers.
Authoritarian Parenting
A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness.
Authoritative Parenting
A parenting style characterized by warmth and responsiveness along with clear expectations for behavior.
Permissive Parenting
A parenting style characterized by low demands with high responsiveness.
Neglectful Parenting
A parenting style characterized by low demands and low responsiveness.
Secure Attachment
A healthy attachment style that fosters trust and a sense of safety.
Insecure Attachment
An unhealthy attachment style characterized by anxiety and avoidance.
Avoidant Attachment
An insecure attachment style where individuals distance themselves from others.
Anxious Attachment
An insecure attachment style marked by anxiety in relationships.
Disorganized Attachment
A lack of a clear attachment behavior often seen in trauma-affected children.
Strange Situation
A procedure devised by Mary Ainsworth to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and a child.
Separation Anxiety
Distress that children experience when separated from their primary caregiver.
Stranger Anxiety
The fear or anxiety children have towards strangers, typically developing around 8-12 months.
Temperament
The innate characteristics with which an individual is born, influencing their personality.
Self-Concept
An individual's perception of their own identity and personal attributes.
Parallel Play
A form of play in which children play adjacent to each other but do not interact.
Pretend Play
A form of play in which children use their imagination to create scenarios and roles.
Imaginary Audience
The belief that everyone is watching and judging them, common in adolescents.
Personal Fable
The belief held by adolescents that they are unique and their experiences are unlike anyone else's.
Social Clock
The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Emerging Adulthood
A phase of development from the late teens to mid-20s where individuals explore life possibilities.
Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erik Erikson's theory that proposes eight stages of psychological growth throughout the lifespan.
Trust and Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, where infants learn to trust caregivers.
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