A&P II Final Exam Nerd Notes

Endocrine, Blood, Blood Vessels

where is estrogen produced

estrogen and progesterone are produced in ovaries; estrogen is needed to drive the maturity of internal reproductive organs and outer secondary sexual characteristics

list the endocrine organs

pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads (ovary & testis)

how does increased thyroid hormone levels affect individuals

increases blood pressure due to stiffened arteries, increased cardiac output, and possibly heart palpitations

what is the difference between cushings and addisons

• Cushing’ syndrome is often caused by tumors or the overuse of corticosteroids and display in a patient as “moon face” and “buffalo hump”

• Addison’s disease involves deficits in both glucocorticoids and mineralocortioids that decrease plasma glucose resulting in weight loss and bronzing of skin; the common treatment is hormone replacement therapy

what does the adrenal cortex secrete? what does it control?

the adrenal cortex secretes several different hormones; the hormones mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) is the homeostatic control of salt & water balance

how does the RAAS system work?

the RAAS is important in clinical settings because it is a pathway designed to regulate blood pressure; when blood volume/pressure decreases kidney cells (juxtaglomerular) release renin from storage granules promoting angiotensin cascade causing vasoconstriction and release of aldosterone. This increases Na+ and water retention in kidney to increase blood volume/pressure

what is the difference between alpha & beta cells?

• alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon to increase blood glucose level though the process of glycogenolysis (breaking) and gluconeogenesis (building) that occurs in the liver

• beta cells secrete insulin when blood glucose levels are high; the mechanisms involved are promoting membrane transport, inhibiting glycogenolysis (breaking) and inhibiting gluconeogenesis (building)

the thyroid gland produces _________ hormones

• water-soluble hormones include all amino acid-based excluding thyroid hormones

• T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine)

what do lipid-soluble hormones do?

lipid soluble hormones can enter the cell thus act on intracellular receptors that involve decreasing gene expression

list the primary functions of pituitary hormones

• growth hormone: anabolic hormone that mobilized fats & spares glucose

• thyroid- stimulating hormone : release thyroid hormones

• adrenocorticotropic hormone: release glucocorticoids & androgens

• follicle-stimulating hormone:

  females: estrogen production & follicle maturation

  males: sperm production

• luteinizing hormone:

  females: estrogen & progesterone production

  males: testosterone production

• prolactin: females promotes lactation

the role of insulin in the body is?

• insulin not only is important for energy production inside the cell but also for storing glycogen and fat ( in adipose tissue)

list the factors that influence insulin release

• elevated blood glucose levels: primary stimulus

• rising blood levels of amino acids and fatty acids

• release of acetylcholine by parasympathetic nerve fibers

• hormones glucagon, epinephrine, growth hormone, thyroxine, glucocorticoids

• somatostatin and sympathetic nervous system inhibit insulin release

describe estrogen and progesterone

• the gonads and the adrenal cortex produce steroid sex hormones

• estrogen and progesterone are produced in ovaries; estrogen is needed to drive the maturity of internal reproductive organs and outer secondary sexual characteristics

• estrogen with progesterone ratio/levels are responsible for menstrual cycles, when both are at lowest point in the follicular phase (shedding of uterine line) begins

descirbe the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis

Hypothalamic hormones (tropic hormone) stimulate the release of anterior pituitary hormones (tropic hormone) which in turn stimulate the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones

what is the processes of platelet formation

platelets begin with the hematopoietic stem cells, the one that is differentiated to develop lymphoid and myeloid cells, and differentiates into a megakaryocyte that has multiple developmental stages before resulting in formed platelets

what binds O2 in RBC and how many

the heme groups of hemoglobin are what bind oxygen, so hemoglobin can transport 4 oxygen molecules

list functions of blood

• blood is used for the transport (delivery guy), regulation, and protection (preventative)

• the blood delivers cell sustaining oxygen, nutrients, and hormones

• the blood removes metabolic wastes, that would hinder cells of doing their jobs at high concentrations

list the layers of blood after centrifugation

when blood is centrifuged, there are 3 distinct layers, from top to bottom, they are: plasma, buffy coat, and erythrocytes

what are formed elements

formed elements include RBC (erythrocytes), WBC (leukocytes) and platelets

what do cells get from blood

the blood delivers cell sustaining oxygen, nutrients, and hormones

what is the function of fibrin

fibrin develops a matrix of trapped RBCs and platelets

what is a D antigen

Rh+ indicates presence of D antigen, 85% of Americans are this type

what is blood plasma made of?

• blood plasma is 90% water and 10% dissolved solutes

• out of all the numerous substances in plasma, the largest % is plasma proteins and of those albumin is the majority

• albumin in plasma functions as a buffer keeping blood pH in homeostasis and also maintains the osmatic pressure of plasma

what type of biomolecule is hemoglobin

• hemoglobin is a protein that has 2 alpha and 2 beta polypeptides, and 4 heme groups

• a RBC contains 250 million hemoglobin proteins

what is the life span of RBCs

the life span of RBCs are 100-120 days

what is albumins function

albumin in plasma functions as a buffer keeping blood pH in homeostasis and also maintains the osmatic pressure of plasma

what are the stem cells that make lymphocytes

lymphoid stem cells produce lymphocytes

at what developmental age is Anti-A observed

Anti-A or Ant-B form in blood at about 2 months of age

what is the red bone marrow known for

the formation of blood is hematopoiesis and occurs in the red bone marrow

blood without A or B agglutinations is

• type O blood has neither A nor B agglutinations

• Type O blood is the universal donor

what is the difference between granulocytes and agranulocytes

• WBCs constitute less than 1% of blood volume and are composed of granulocytes and agranulocytes

• granulocytes are immune cells that contain granules of molecules that promote inflammation; these three are neutrophils 50-70%, eosinophils 2-4%, and basophils 0.5-1%

• agranulocytes are cells without granulocytes and are found in blood at relative percentages of 25-45% lymphocytes and 3-8% monocytes

why don’t RBCs produce energy

RBCs are the only cells in our bodies that are absent of nucleus and organelles, so they do not respond to stimuli or produce energy

RBC formation is stimulated by __________

erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone that stimulates formation of RBCs; the kidneys release this hormone in response to hypoxia (low oxygen in the blood)

what cells are granulocytes

(BEN) basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils

what does O2 loading mean

the lungs are important for oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading within RBC

what is platelet plug formation

platelet plug formation begins with platelets adhering to collagen fibers that trigger platelets to release chemicals that make local platelets stickier.

what is exercise hyperemia

though the short-term metabolic increase leads to general increased blood flow, long-term autoregulation includes developing new vessels (angiogenesis). This increase of vessels is commonly found in individuals that live at high-altitudes. This is the advantage of living and training >6 months in high-altitude locations

what is blood flow determined by

resistance to blood flow is multifactorial that includes: viscosity, blood vessel length, and blood vessel diameter

describe bulk flow and how it works

• bulk flow of blood an diffusion are two different things; the molecules involved are plasma for bulk flow and both gases and ions

• bulk flow is not a complete exchange of fresh plasma for old plasma, but an incomplete exchange for fresh plasma for old plasma

describe nitric oxide and its release

endothelial cells release nitric oxide into the blood stream that causes vasodilation

what are adaptation for persons in high altitudes

though the short-term metabolic increase leads to general increased blood flow, long-term autoregulation includes developing new vessels (angiogenesis). This increase of vessels is commonly found in individuals that live at high-altitudes. This is the advantage of living and training >6 months in high-altitude locations

list pressures in capillaries

there are three different capillary pressures that occur

• arterial end +10 mmHg

• mid capillary 0 mmHg

• venous end -7 mmHg

how does autonomic nervous system ANS respond in cold weather

the autonomic nervous system will constrict all vessels, except internal organs and brain, during extreme exposure to cold or profuse bleeding

list hypertension risk factors

risk factors for hypertension include (internal) genetics and (external) diet, obesity, and stress