Cation
metals lose e- always smaller than original molecule
Anion
nonmetals gain e- always larger than original molecule
Atomic/Ionic Radius
increases as you go down because more e- shells
decreases as you go across because stronger nuclear charge pulls e- in closer
Ionization Energy
decreases as you go down because it's easier to remove an e- farther from the nucleus
increases as you go across because the e- are closer to the nucleus so it's harder to remove them
Electronegativity
decreases as you go down, atoms become more metallic and want to get rid of e-
increases as you go across, atoms become more nonmetallic and want to gain e- to form an octet
*noble gases excluded because they have an octet
Exceptions to Ionization Energy
all of 3A and 6A because of e- pairing (consult orbital diagram notes for further explanation)
Coloumbic Forces
charge of ion
size/atomic radius of ion
high charge + small radius = larger lattice energy and stronger attraction and vice versa
Ionic Compounds
formed when metal transfers VE to nonmetals
ions arrange themselves in a crystal lattice
held together via strong electrostatic attractions
high melting point
if dissolved in a polar solvent, will form an electrolytic solution
Covalent Compounds
formed when nonmetals share VE to achieve octet
covalent bonds form molecules
held together via IMF, not chemical bonds
low melting points
never forms an electrolytic solution
*network covalent compounds don't dissolve
Substitutional Alloy
formed between 2 atoms of similar atomic radii
Interstitual Alloy
formed from 2 metals of vastly different radii
smaller atom fills up empty spaces between larger atoms and results in a more durable structure
Bond Strength
triple > double > single
stronger bond = shorter length
2 domains: 2 bonding pairs
linear 180° sp
3 domains: 3 bonding pairs
trigonal planar 120° sp2
3 domains: 2 bonding pairs, 1 nonbonding pair
bent <120° sp2
4 domains: 4 bonding pairs
tetrahedral 109.5° sp3
4 domains: 3 bonding pairs, 1 nonbonding pair
trigonal pyramid <109.5° sp3
4 domains: 2 bonding pairs, 2 nonbonding pairs
bent <109.5° sp3
ΔHrxn=ΣΔHbroken + ΣΔHformed
bond enthalpy: energy absorbed/released in a rxn
need the lewis structure for this one
ΔHrxn > 0 --> endothermic rxn ΔHrxn < 0 --> exothermic rxn
Formal Charges
FC = # of VE in free atom - # of bonds - # of unbonded e-
Resonance Structures
occurs when e- shift to form alternative lewis structures
Resonance Stability
all atoms must have complete octet
formal charges kept @ minimum
if formal charges are present, the negative charge is on the more electronegative element
Net Ionic Equations
write the balanced chemical equation
write the complete ionic equation
cancel out the common ones basically, then you get the net ionic equation
Limiting/Excess Reagents
write the equation
figure out what's limiting: convert grams to moles then use balanced chemical equation to figure out what's limiting
calculate how much was used and how much is left
Molarity
M = n/v
n = moles of solute
v = volume of solution in L
Solution Stoichiometry
idk man just figure out what you’re given and do the stoichiometry
Preparing Solutions: From Scratch
use M = n/v
Preparing Solutions: From Stock Solution
use M1V1 = M2V2
Factors That Influence Pressure
volume: lower volume = higher pressure
does not increase particle speed
moles of gas: more moles of gas = higher pressure
temperature: higher temp = higher pressure
Gas Laws
P1V1 = P2V2
V1/T1 = V2/T2
P1/T1 = P2/T2
PV = nRT
remember the difference between both R constants; this one is 0.08206 L*atm / mol*K
ideal gas conditions: high temp & low pressure
Mole Fractions
you can either use PV = nRT with only the moles of the gas you want, or calculate total pressure then multiply by the fraction of moles of gas
Kinetic Molecular Theory
volume of individual gases is negligible relative to the total volume
kinetic energy is only affected by temperature
graph is molecular speed vs fraction of molecules
lower temp: shift left w/ steeper curve
higher temp: shift right w/ less steep curve
Effusion/Diffusion
any atom/molecule with a smaller mass will effuse/diffuse faster
Polar Molecules
polar bonds: nonmetal bonded to F, O, N, Cl
fluorine is the most electronegative element
a symmetrical molecule or a molecule with no polar bonds is nonpolar
an asymmetrical molecule with at least 1 polar bond is polar
IMFs
not a chemical bond
strong IMF = low vapor pressure = high melting/boiling point
Ionic Bonds
formed when a positive ion bonds w/ a negative ion via electrostatic attraction
Ion Dipole: attraction between a polar molecule & ion
Hydrogen Bonds
strongest IMF
only occurs in polar molecules with H is bonded to F, O, or N and is attracted to lone pairs on another molecule
any molecule capable of H-bonding is also capable of D-D
Dipole-Dipole
all polar molecules are capable of exerting these
occurs when lone pairs on more EN atom are attracted to the partially positive atom on the other molecule
London Dispersion Forces (including shape of molecule)
present in all molecules
having more electrons makes it more polarizable (easier to separate charges) which means a stronger LDF
the larger the molecule, the stronger the LDF
if 2 molecules have the same formula, the one with a more linear structure will have a stronger LDF due to more surface area of interaction
Empirical Formulas
1: write mass %s as grams
2: convert to moles
3: divide all values by the smallest mole value
4: round to the nearest whole number unless it ends in 0.20, 0.25, 0.33, or 0.5
5: divide the molar mass of the compound by the empirical mass to get the ratio
e.g. molar mass is 162.1, empirical mass is 81 so since 162.1/81 = 2, the molecular formula will be C10H14N2 instead of C5H7N
Hydrated Salts
always written as salt * XH2O where X = whole number
1: determine mass of dry salt and of H2O
2: convert both to moles
3: divide mole values by the smallest mole value, which should always be the salt
Orbital Diagrams
just make sure one arrow is up and one is down
more stable when they are either 1/2 full or completely full
make sure each orbital has at least 1 electron before pairing up any
Electromagnetic Radiation
C = λν
C = speed of light: 3.0 x 10^8 m/s
λ = wavelength in m (convert nanometers to m)
ν = frequency in 1/s or Hz
6.02 x 10^23 photon/mol
Planck's Equation
E = hν
E = energy per photon in J/photon
h = Planck’s Constant: 6.63 x 10^-34 J*****s
ν = frequency in 1/s or s^-1
6.02 x 10^23 photon/mol
Thermochemistry
system: the object which heat measurement is in reference to
surrounding: everything that isn’t the system
endothermic: system temp increases, surrounding temp decreases
exothermic: system temp decreases, surrounding temp increases
exothermic: __ex__udes heat
Molar Enthalpy in relation to energy
ΔHsol = q/n
q = energy in KJ
n = moles of solute
measured in KJ/mol
Phase Change Using ΔHfus and ΔHvap
ΔHfus: melt/freeze 6.01 KJ/mol
ΔHvap: vaporize/condense 40.7 KJ/mol
melting & vaporizing are endothermic so positive ΔH
freezing & condensing are exothermic so negative ΔH
1: bring to phase change temp (either 0 or 100C) using
q = MCΔT
2: phase change calculations using q = nΔHvap/fus
3: bring to final temp using q = MCΔT
4: add up all the energy changes
Enthalpy of Rxn: Stoichiometry A+B -> C+D
endo: energy is a reactant
exo: energy is a product
ΔH is measured in KJ/ mol rxn
Enthalpy of Formation
ΔHrxn = nΣΔHproducts - nΣΔHreactants
pure elements will always have ΔHformation of 0 KJ/mol
Hess's Law
just cancel things out, reverse the signs if necessary, and add them all up
Entropy
ΔS = nΣΔSproducts - nΣΔSreactants
usually measured in J/mol*K
positive ΔS = increasing disorder (favorable)
negative ΔS = decreasing disorder
Factors That Affect Entropy
temperature: higher temp = higher ΔS due to more molecular movement
size of molecule: larger molecule = more atoms = higher ΔS due to more vibrational motion
physical state: gas has highest ΔS
Gibbs Free Energy (all equations)
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
Gibbs is in KJ/mol so convert ΔS to KJ instead of J
ΔG = -RTln(K)
this R constant is 8.314 J/mol*K or 0.008314 KJ/mol*K
ΔG = nΣΔGproducts - nΣΔGreactants
-ΔG means spontaneous rxn & means K>1
+ΔG means nonspontaneous rxn & means K<1
Spontaneity Table
-ΔH and + ΔS = spontaneous @ all temps
+ΔH and -ΔS = nonspontaneous @ all temps
-ΔH and -ΔS = spontaneous only @ low temps
+ΔH and +ΔS = spontaneous only @ high temps
Reaction Quotient
Q = [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a[B]^b
Q is unitless and measures the ratio of products to reactants at all conditions but equilibrium
Equilibrium Expression
Keq = [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a[B]^b
Keq is unitless and measures the ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium
Rates of Rxn
basically slope; measured in M/s
Criteria for Rxn to Occur
particles must collide in order to react
particles must collide in correct orientation (Tetris)
particles must collide w/ enough energy to meet activation energy requirement
Rates of Rxn Graphs
activation energy: reactants to peak
ΔH: reactants to products
endo: reactants lower than products
exo: reactants higher than products
Factors Affecting Rxn Rate
concentration: higher concentration = faster rxn
temperature: higher temp = faster rxn
surface area: exposing more surface area = faster rxn (basketball vs ping pong balls example)
catalyst: adding a catalyst = faster rxn (duh)
catalyst lowers activation energy
Q < K
too many reactants! shift right to produce more products
Q > K
too many products! shift left to produce more reactants
negative ΔG correlates with:
spontaneous reaction more products than reactants present K > 1
positive ΔG correlates with:
nonspontaneous reaction more reactants than products present K < 1
Rate Laws
Rate (M/s) = k[A]^x[B]^y A and B are the concentration/molarity of the reactants x and y are the rate orders k is the rate constant with units dependent upon order
If the overall order (sum of x and y) is 0, the units of k are M/s
What affects kinetic energy?
temperature
What are the units of k?
0th order: M/s
1st order: 1/time
2nd order: 1/M*time
Integrated Rate Law for 0th Order:
[x] = -kt + [x]initial
Integrated Rate Law for 1st Order:
ln[x] = -kt + ln[x]initial
Integrated Rate Law for 2nd Order:
1/[x] = kt + 1/[x]initial
What do you use integrated rate laws for?
if you are only given time and concentration data and are asked to determine rate order