Beliefs in Society Key Concepts

Substantive

Religious definition focusing on the content, defining it as the belief in a supernatural power/god

Functional

Religious definition focussing on its function, defining religion as having a role in society like social integration or for an individual like providing answers of life after death

Constructionist

Religious definition focusing on how individuals define religion instead of requiring a belief in god or a similar function for all

Pluralistically legitimate

Having your own beliefs but recognising other beliefs are legitimate and could be true.

Circulatory explanations

Explaining religious beliefs via other beliefs within the religion

Subsidiary explanations

Using ‘get out’ clauses to explain occurrences that contradict religious beliefs.

Denial of legitimacy to rivals

Blatantly rejecting other beliefs

CUDOS norms

4 key principles of modern science

Communism

Scientific knowledge is shared throughout the community

Universalism

Scientific theories are objectively judged and agreed collectively, not just by one nation or social group

Disinterestedness

Scientists have no stakes in the knowledge to avoid bias and exaggerating their findings.

Organised Scepticism

There is no sacred scientific knowledge, all is open to objective investigation and criticism.

Imagined community

Nationalism creating a false sense of togetherness within a country.

Bureaucratic

A body of non-elected officials

World-affirming

A religious organisation aiming to help individuals achieve success within mainstream society.

World-accommodating

Religious organisations co-existing with the world with a focus on spirituality and religion instead of worldly affairs.

World-rejecting

Religious organisations wanting to be separate from the world and are highly critical of the outside world.

Technological worldview

Understanding science and technology has left little room for religious explanations.

Cultural defence

Religion can defend a national, ethnic or local shared identity in a struggle against an external force (eg: a hostile foreign power) or in hostile or uncertain environment by offering support and cultural identity. Seen by the rise of Catholicism in Poland before communism fell.

Cultural transition

Religion providing comfort and community for international migrants and being used to ease into a new culture. Seen with Muslim migrants in the UK.

Existential security theory

Religiosity in society varies due to different degrees of security. Societies where people feel secure create a low demand for religion.

Cycle of renewal

A cycle of religious decline, revival and renewal. An established religion declining creates a gap in the market for sects and cults to gain new members.

Sects

A religious organisation resulting from a schism from a church or denomination, offering other-worldly benefits.

Cults

An organisation offering self-improvement and worldly benefits to its members.

Audience cults

Cults with limited organisation and commitment. Member interaction instead takes place via media (eg: astrology)

Client cults

A cult where consultants provide services to followers, eg: personal growth therapies.

Cultic movements

Highly organised cults with high commitment from members that aim to meet all the member’s religious needs.

Spiritual deprivation

Seeing the world as too materialistic, lonely and impersonal

Cultural amnesia

A loss of collective generational memory, no longer passing religion to the next generation

Pilgrims

People on an individual spiritual journey into New Age spirituality and cults, seeking personal development

Converts

People who join religious groups in search of a sense of belonging or community, more drawn to evangelical movements or churches of ethnic minorities

Fundamentalism

Religion based on unquestioning belief in the literal truth of sacred texts. Belief that there is only one true view of the world.

Liberalism & Cosmopolitanism

Tolerance, reflexivity, rationality - viewing one’s lifestyle as a personal choice

Project identities

Forward looking response to postmodernism that embraces progression and change

Resistant identities

Defensive reaction of those who feel threatened by the postmodern world and turn to fundamentalism

Third world fundamentalism

Fundamentalism that develops as a response to ‘outsider’ cultures forcing change onto societies (typically the West imposing on Eastern cultures)

Secular fundamentalism

The belief that religion is wrong and should be eradicated and that atheism is correct. Claims a monopoly on the truth.

Clash of civilisations

Religious conflict has intensified since the fall of communism where people were exposed to others’ beliefs and practices alongside globalisation via the internet and migration. Religious differences create an us vs them mentality increasing military and economic competition which drives war

Western fundamentalism

Fundamentalism occurring as a response to changes within society

Sacred

Special elements of religion with large amounts of meaning that create powerful meanings

Profane

Mundane objects with no special significance

Psychological functions

Religion helping people to cope with unexpected and difficult challenges

Civil religion

A belief system that makes society scared to claim the loyalty of people to their society/country

Mystical fog

Religion obscuring reality from the working class

Ideological weapon

Ruling class using religion to legitimise working class suffering as God-given to create false consciousness and prevent revolution

Religious forms of feminism

Women using religion to gain greater freedom and respect

Calvinism

A form of Protestantism that’s values of hard work, ascetism and meritocracy are thought to have led to capitalism

Salvation panic

Calvinist response to pre-destination where they work hard to see signs from God (eg: success or wealth) to show they have been chosen to go to heaven

Asceticism

Values of abstinence, self-discipline. Living a simple life without luxury like Jesus.

Ideological resource

Using religion as a tool in protest to gain moral legitimacy and an honest broker

Public sphere

Women’s role in the workplace (could be seen as a masculinised identity)

Private sphere

Women’s expressive role in the family

Individual sphere

Women’s individualised autonomy and personal growth rather than role performance

Organismic deprivation

Physical and mental health problems

Ethical deprivation

Considering the world in moral decline eg: polygamy, climate change etc

Social deprivation

Experiencing poverty

Pentecostal gender paradox

Women turning to Pentecostalism to benefit their lives despite its patriarchal nature

Cohort effect

What a generation has gone through determining a generation’s level of religiosity (eg: surviving WW2 creating faith in God, or losing people in Covid declining faith in God)

Ageing effect

The older you are, the more you have to face up to your own mortality, so turn to religion due to closeness to death.

Theodicy of misfortune

Belief wealth/worldly success indicates evil. Associated with religions attracting the poor.

Theodicy of good fortune

Worldly success indicates virtue. Associated with religions attracting the higher classes.