APUSH Unit 6 Test

Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, 1876

Panic of 1873

1. The Panic of 1873 was triggered by the collapse of Jay Cooke & Company, which led to a domino effect of bank failures across the country.

2. Following the panic, unemployment rates soared, reaching as high as 14 percent in some areas, while thousands of businesses went bankrupt.

3. The economic downturn led to significant social unrest, including protests and strikes, as workers demanded better conditions and jobs.

4. This financial crisis contributed to shifting perspectives on government intervention in the economy, with some arguing for more regulation to prevent future collapses.

5. The Panic of 1873 also had lasting effects on American politics, leading to debates over monetary policy and contributing to the rise of movements like the Greenback Movement.

Compromise of 1877

1. The Compromise of 1877 resolved the election crisis by granting Rutherford B. Hayes the presidency in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the Southern states.

2. This withdrawal allowed Southern Democrats to regain political power, which they used to impose racial segregation through Jim Crow laws.

3. The agreement was reached following intense negotiations involving key political leaders, but it was never formally legislated or documented.

4. The Compromise effectively ended federal efforts to protect the civil rights of African Americans in the South, leading to decades of disenfranchisement and systemic racism.

5. Many historians view the Compromise of 1877 as a turning point that marked the failure of Reconstruction and a regression in civil rights for African Americans.

Horatio Alger

• Author: Horatio Alger, Jr. (1832-1899) wrote over 100 books for boys featuring these themes.

• Core Theme: Young protagonists, often orphans or from destitute backgrounds, overcome adversity through honesty, integrity, and diligent labor to find middle-class success. (rags to riches)

• Cultural Impact: His stories shaped post-Civil War American culture, motivating many and solidifying the idea that hard work guarantees upward mobility, a concept known as "pulling oneself up by the bootstraps".

• The Myth: The concept became so ingrained that "Horatio Alger" became synonymous with the American Dream, even though the real Alger's life and success were more complex, with his image later mythologized by publishers.

Jim Crow Laws, Plessy v. Ferguson

Jim Crow Laws were state and local statutes enacted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised African Americans in the Southern United States. These laws emerged after the Reconstruction era, establishing a system of institutionalized racism that restricted black citizens' rights and maintained white supremacy.

1. The case arose when Homer Plessy, an African American man, was arrested for sitting in a 'whites-only' railroad car, challenging Louisiana's segregation laws.

2. The Supreme Court's decision was delivered by Justice Henry Billings Brown, who argued that separate facilities for blacks and whites did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

3. The ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson legitimized state-sponsored segregation and contributed to the entrenchment of racial discrimination across various sectors, including education and public services.

4. The phrase 'separate but equal' became a legal standard used to justify segregation until it was challenged by civil rights activists in the mid-20th century.

5. The case set a precedent that would remain in effect until the Brown v. Board of Education decision, which effectively dismantled segregation laws.

Mass production 

1. Mass production gained prominence in the early 20th century with Henry Ford's implementation of the assembly line for automobile manufacturing, drastically reducing production time and costs.

2. The technique not only increased efficiency but also made products more accessible to the average consumer, contributing to a boom in consumer culture during the 1920s.

3. Mass production techniques were applied across various industries beyond automobiles, including textiles, electronics, and household goods, leading to widespread industrial growth.

4. By standardizing parts and processes, mass production allowed companies to scale operations rapidly, increasing competition and driving innovation in manufacturing practices.

5. The rise of mass production also had social implications, as it contributed to changes in labor practices and urbanization as workers moved to cities for factory jobs.

capitalism

1. Capitalism emerged in Europe during the late Middle Ages and became more defined during the Renaissance, evolving through key historical moments such as the Age of Exploration.

2. The rise of capitalism was fueled by increased trade networks established during European exploration, which expanded markets and increased wealth accumulation.

3. The Market Revolution in the 19th century significantly transformed the American economy, promoting capitalist principles such as factory production and consumer culture.

4. Capitalism influenced postwar diplomacy by shaping economic relationships between nations, where trade agreements and capitalist development played crucial roles in global politics.

5. The pursuit of profit in capitalist systems has often led to innovation but has also resulted in economic disparities and social tensions throughout history.

Big Business Trusts,  Vertical and Horizontal Integration

Horizontal integration is a business strategy where a company acquires or merges with other companies at the same level of the supply chain, effectively increasing its market share and reducing competition. This practice became prominent during the era of industrialization and the Gilded Age, as businesses sought to maximize efficiency, cut costs, and dominate their industries by consolidating their power.

Vertical integration is a business strategy where a company controls multiple stages of production or distribution within the same industry. This approach allows companies to reduce costs, increase efficiency, and enhance control over the supply chain. By owning everything from raw materials to manufacturing to distribution, firms can streamline operations and improve profitability, which became a hallmark of industrial capitalism during periods of rapid technological innovation.

A trust is a legal arrangement where multiple companies consolidate their operations and management to control a market and reduce competition.

Robber Barons vs. “captains of industry” 

Captains of Industry refers to powerful business leaders during the late 19th and early 20th centuries who played a significant role in shaping the American economy and society. These individuals were often entrepreneurs who amassed vast fortunes through their innovative practices, such as creating large corporations and improving industrial processes. They are also seen as influential figures who contributed to the development of the middle class by providing jobs, fostering economic growth, and supporting philanthropy.

Robber Barons refers to a group of powerful industrialists and businessmen in the late 19th century who were accused of using exploitative practices to amass their wealth during the period of rapid industrialization and economic expansion. These figures were often criticized for monopolizing industries, manipulating markets, and exploiting labor, which reflected the broader themes of economic inequality and corruption in the Gilded Age.

J. Pierpont Morgan

1. J.P. Morgan was born in 1837 and became one of the most powerful bankers in America by the turn of the 20th century.

2. He played a key role in financing the creation of General Electric and U.S. Steel, showcasing his influence in major industrial sectors.

3. Morgan was instrumental in creating banking trusts that helped stabilize financial markets and support industrial growth.

4. During the Panic of 1907, he led efforts to prevent a larger economic collapse by orchestrating a bailout for failing banks and businesses.

5. Morgan's practices contributed to regulatory reforms in banking, including changes that eventually led to the establishment of the Federal Reserve System.

Andrew Carnegie

1. Carnegie immigrated to the United States from Scotland as a child and started his career as a bobbin boy in a cotton factory before moving up the ranks in various businesses.

2. He founded the Carnegie Steel Company in 1892, which became the largest and most profitable industrial enterprise in the world at the time.

3. Carnegie was a proponent of 'The Gospel of Wealth,' an idea that wealthy individuals had a moral obligation to give back to society and improve the lives of others.

4. His philanthropic efforts included the establishment of over 2,500 libraries across the United States, which aimed to provide access to education and knowledge for all.

5. Carnegie's steel company played a crucial role in major infrastructure projects, including the construction of bridges and skyscrapers, significantly shaping America's industrial landscape.

US Steel Corporation

1. The US Steel Corporation was founded by J.P. Morgan as part of a wave of mergers that led to the consolidation of many smaller steel producers into a single entity.

2. At its peak, US Steel produced more steel than all of Great Britain combined, showcasing its dominance in the global market.

3. The corporation's establishment signaled a move toward vertical integration, where companies controlled every aspect of production from raw materials to finished products.

4. US Steel played a significant role in building infrastructure during the Industrial Revolution, supplying steel for railroads, bridges, and buildings across America.

5. The company faced challenges during economic downturns, leading to labor disputes and strikes that highlighted issues related to workers' rights and safety in industrial settings.

John D. Rockefeller

1. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company controlled over 90% of U.S. oil refineries at its peak, making it one of the largest monopolies in history.

2. He was known for his ruthless business tactics, including undercutting competitors' prices to drive them out of business, which led to significant public backlash and calls for regulation.

3. In 1911, the Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly and ordered its breakup into several smaller companies.

4. Beyond his business ventures, Rockefeller was a major philanthropist, establishing foundations that funded education, medical research, and public health initiatives.

5. His practices influenced antitrust legislation in the U.S., leading to laws designed to prevent monopolies and promote fair competition in various industries.

Standard Oil Company

1. Standard Oil controlled about 90% of the U.S. oil refineries and pipelines at its peak, establishing a significant monopoly over the oil industry.

2. The company employed aggressive tactics to eliminate competition, including undercutting prices and engaging in secret deals with railroads for favorable shipping rates.

3. In 1911, the Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil violated antitrust laws and ordered it to be broken up into 34 independent companies.

4. Standard Oil's practices and subsequent breakup highlighted the growing concern over monopolies and led to stronger regulations in corporate America.

5. John D. Rockefeller's wealth from Standard Oil made him one of the richest individuals in history, illustrating the immense financial power that could be gained during this era of industrial capitalism.

Rebates, long-haul passes

• Rebates: Secret, unauthorized reductions in shipping rates given to favored, large-scale shippers (like John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil) to secure their business.

• Long-Haul/Short-Haul Discrimination: Railroads charged higher rates for short, non-competitive routes and lower rates for long, competitive routes. This punished small, local farmers who had no other options for transporting goods.

• Free Passes: Railroads gave free tickets to government officials, politicians, and journalists to prevent them from regulating the industry.

• Significance: These practices created a "long-haul/short-haul" issue that highlighted the lack of regulation during the Gilded Age.

• Regulation: The Interstate Commerce Act (1887) was passed specifically to ban these practices, outlawing rebates and long-short haul discrimination. 

These issues are foundational to understanding the rise of industrial capitalism, the abuses of monopolies, and the government's shift toward regulation. 

Gospel of Wealth

1. Andrew Carnegie articulated the Gospel of Wealth in his 1889 essay, asserting that wealthy individuals should act as trustees for their wealth and manage it for the benefit of society.

2. The philosophy became a justification for wealth accumulation during the Gilded Age, suggesting that great fortunes were not only acceptable but beneficial if used for philanthropy.

3. Carnegie's ideas encouraged many wealthy individuals to donate to causes such as education, libraries, and public institutions, significantly impacting the development of American society.

4. Critics argued that the Gospel of Wealth allowed the rich to maintain power and influence while ignoring systemic issues related to poverty and inequality.

5. The concept influenced later philanthropic movements and established a precedent for corporate social responsibility among today's wealthy elites.

Social Darwinism

1. Social Darwinism emerged in the late 19th century as industrialization and urbanization transformed society, providing a justification for economic inequalities and labor exploitation.

2. Prominent figures like Herbert Spencer popularized Social Darwinism, coining the phrase 'survival of the fittest' to argue against social welfare programs and for laissez-faire economics.

3. The ideology was used to rationalize imperial expansion, suggesting that stronger nations had a duty to civilize 'weaker' races.

4. Social Darwinism influenced policies regarding immigration, leading to restrictive laws that favored certain ethnic groups over others based on perceived superiority.

5. Critics of Social Darwinism pointed out its ethical implications and how it dehumanized individuals by attributing worth based solely on social status or race.

Interstate Commerce Act

1. The Interstate Commerce Act marked the first time the federal government intervened in regulating private industry, specifically targeting the railroad companies.

2. The act aimed to eliminate discriminatory practices such as secret rebates and preferential treatment given to certain shippers over others.

3. The ICC had limited power initially, facing challenges in enforcing its regulations effectively against powerful railroad companies.

4. While the act was a significant step towards regulation, it was not until later reforms that the ICC gained more authority to enforce compliance and regulate rates effectively.

5. The Interstate Commerce Act set a precedent for future regulatory legislation, paving the way for greater government involvement in economic affairs during the Progressive Era.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

1. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act was the first federal legislation to outlaw monopolistic business practices.

2. It authorized the federal government to investigate and break up trusts that restrained trade or commerce.

3. The Act was initially used sparingly, but its enforcement increased in the early 20th century under presidents like Theodore Roosevelt.

4. Key Supreme Court cases, such as United States v. E.C. Knight Co., tested the Act's limits and interpretation regarding commerce and manufacturing.

5. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act laid the groundwork for future antitrust laws, including the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, which provided more specific regulations against anti-competitive practices.

Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall

1. Boss Tweed gained control of Tammany Hall (the Democratic Party's political machine in New York City) in the 1860s and used his position to consolidate power, manipulate elections, and enrich himself and his associates.

2. He was implicated in massive corruption scandals, most notably the construction of the New York County Courthouse, which cost taxpayers over $13 million while only being worth about $3 million.

3. Tweed's corrupt practices included bribery, kickbacks, and election fraud, which he orchestrated through a network of loyal political allies.

4. His downfall began when investigative journalism exposed his corrupt activities, notably through the work of Thomas Nast, a political cartoonist who helped turn public opinion against him.

5. Tweed was eventually convicted of forgery and grand larceny in 1873 but managed to escape from prison before being recaptured in Spain and extradited back to the United States.

Thomas Nast

1. Nast is often referred to as the 'father of the American political cartoon,' having popularized the use of caricatures to convey complex political messages.

2. His cartoons played a significant role in the campaign against Tammany Hall, particularly highlighting the corruption associated with Boss Tweed's administration.

3. Nast's work led to the introduction of social reforms, including the push for civil service reform and improvements in public education.

4. He created iconic symbols such as Santa Claus as we know him today, linking cultural imagery with political messages.

5. Nast was instrumental in rallying support for the abolition of slavery through his powerful illustrations during the Civil War era.

George Washington Plunkitt 

George Washington Plunkitt was a famous leader in New York's Tammany Hall political machine, known for his candid explanations of machine politics, particularly his concept of "honest graft"—using insider political knowledge for personal (but legal) financial gain, like buying land the city would need—as detailed in

Plunkitt of Tammany Hall, a key source for understanding urban political machines and Gilded Age corruption/patronage

1877 Railway Strike

1. The strike began in response to wage cuts implemented by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which angered workers who were already facing difficult conditions.

2. The protest quickly escalated, spreading to multiple states and resulting in violent clashes between workers and state militia forces.

3. The strike highlighted the growing power of organized labor and the willingness of workers to fight for their rights, even in the face of significant opposition.

4. Federal troops were eventually deployed to restore order, marking a significant intervention by the government in labor disputes.

5. The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 set a precedent for future labor movements and strikes, underscoring the ongoing struggles between workers and corporate interests.

Review Questions

trade unions

1. Trade unions began to form in the early 19th century as a response to the harsh working conditions in factories during the Industrial Revolution.

2. One of the key victories for trade unions was the establishment of the eight-hour workday, which was achieved through collective action and strikes.

3. The American Federation of Labor (AFL), founded in 1886, was one of the first successful trade union organizations, focusing on skilled workers and advocating for better wages and working conditions.

4. Trade unions played a crucial role in advocating for labor laws and regulations, such as child labor laws and workplace safety standards.

5. The decline of trade union membership in the late 20th century has been linked to globalization, shifts in the economy, and changes in labor policies.

Haymarket Massacre

1. The Haymarket Affair began as a rally organized by labor activists advocating for an eight-hour workday and was part of a larger movement for labor reform across the United States.

2. The incident turned violent when someone threw a bomb at police officers who were trying to disperse the crowd, resulting in the deaths of seven police officers and several civilians.

3. Following the bombing, a highly publicized trial ensued, leading to the conviction of several anarchists, despite the lack of evidence linking them directly to the bombing.

4. The Haymarket Affair led to increased public fear of labor movements and anarchism, resulting in a backlash against organized labor and contributing to the decline of the Knights of Labor.

5. The event is commemorated every year on May 1st as International Workers' Day, highlighting its lasting impact on labor rights and movements worldwide.

Knights of Labor

1. The Knights of Labor were founded by Uriah Stephens and were originally a secret society aiming to protect the interests of workers.

2. At its peak in the mid-1880s, the Knights of Labor had over 700,000 members and was one of the largest labor organizations in the U.S.

3. The Knights advocated for a broad range of reforms including social justice issues, such as women's rights and the abolition of child labor.

4. The decline of the Knights of Labor began after their involvement in the Haymarket Riot of 1886, which tarnished their reputation and led to a decrease in membership.

5. The Knights of Labor were unique for their inclusivity; they allowed unskilled workers, women, and African Americans to join, which was uncommon among labor organizations at that time.

American Federation of Labor

1. The AFL was formed by a merger of several national trade unions, primarily focusing on skilled workers from various trades.

2. The organization advocated for practical goals rather than broad social reforms, which differentiated it from more radical labor movements like the Knights of Labor.

3. Under Gompers' leadership, the AFL emphasized collective bargaining as a key strategy to improve workers' conditions.

4. The AFL's membership grew significantly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting the increasing importance of organized labor in American society.

5. The AFL laid the foundation for future labor rights advancements, influencing legislation related to workers' rights and workplace safety.

Samuel Gompers

1. Gompers served as president of the AFL for nearly 40 years, from its founding in 1886 until his death in 1924, which made him one of the longest-serving leaders in American labor history.

2. He promoted a philosophy known as 'pure and simple unionism,' which emphasized immediate economic benefits for workers rather than broader political or social reforms.

3. Under Gompers' leadership, the AFL grew significantly, increasing its membership from about 140,000 to over 1 million by the time of his death.

4. Gompers was instrumental in advocating for the establishment of Labor Day as a national holiday in recognition of the labor movement's contributions to society.

5. He faced challenges from both industrialists who resisted unionization and more radical labor leaders who sought broader reforms, but he maintained a moderate stance that appealed to many workers.

Pullman Strike

1. The Pullman Strike began when workers at the Pullman Company went on strike in response to wage cuts while their rents remained high, sparking widespread sympathy strikes across the nation.

2. The strike led to a significant disruption in rail traffic, particularly affecting the delivery of mail, which prompted the federal government to intervene by sending troops to break the strike.

3. Eugene V. Debs was arrested during the strike for defying a court injunction, showcasing the government's willingness to use legal measures to suppress labor movements.

4. The Pullman Strike highlighted the struggles of workers during the Gilded Age, bringing attention to issues such as poor working conditions, low wages, and corporate power over labor.

5. The aftermath of the strike resulted in negative public perception of labor unions, but it also laid the groundwork for future labor movements and reforms in workers' rights.

Eugene V. Debs

1. Debs was a five-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party, advocating for social reform, including workers' rights, public ownership of utilities, and an end to capitalism.

2. He was instrumental in organizing the Pullman Strike of 1894, which drew national attention to labor conditions and led to his arrest.

3. Debs was imprisoned for opposing U.S. involvement in World War I, specifically under the Espionage Act, which limited dissent against the war effort.

4. His speeches often emphasized class struggle and criticized the capitalist system, positioning him as a key figure in American socialism.

5. Debs' legacy continues to influence labor movements and progressive politics in the United States, being remembered as a champion of social justice and workers' rights.

socialism

1. During the Gilded Age, socialism emerged as a response to the harsh realities of industrial labor, where workers faced long hours, low wages, and unsafe conditions.

2. Key socialist figures during this period included Eugene V. Debs, who helped found the American Socialist Party in 1901 and was an outspoken advocate for workers' rights.

3. Socialist ideas influenced various labor organizations, leading to strikes and movements that demanded reforms in labor laws and practices.

4. The concept of socialism gained popularity as public discontent grew over economic disparities created by industrial capitalism, leading to calls for government intervention.

5. Socialism was often viewed with skepticism in America, with opponents labeling it as a threat to individual freedom and capitalism.

U.S.: "melting pot" or "salad bowl"?

The salad bowl model emphasizes the preservation of distinct cultural identities within a diverse society, whereas the melting pot concept advocates for assimilation into a single culture. This difference has significant implications for immigrant communities; under the salad bowl model, immigrants can maintain their cultural traditions and contribute to society without losing their unique backgrounds. This can lead to a richer social fabric but may also require ongoing efforts to foster intercultural understanding and collaboration.

"new" immigration

1. New Immigrants included large numbers of Italians, Poles, Russians, Jews, and Chinese, contributing to the diverse fabric of American society.

2. Many New Immigrants settled in urban areas, leading to the growth of ethnic neighborhoods that maintained cultural traditions and languages.

3. The Immigration Act of 1924 aimed to limit immigration from certain countries, reflecting the backlash against New Immigrants and reinforcing nativist sentiments.

4. New Immigrants often took low-wage jobs in factories and industries, fueling America's rapid industrial growth during this period.

5. Despite their contributions, New Immigrants faced discrimination and prejudice from some native-born Americans who viewed them as threats to jobs and cultural values.

Nativism

1. Nativism gained significant traction in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, especially in response to large waves of European immigration.

2. Organizations like the Know-Nothing Party in the 1850s and the Immigration Restriction League in the 1890s were prominent nativist groups that sought to limit immigration.

3. Legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 exemplifies nativist sentiments by explicitly barring certain immigrant groups based on ethnicity.

4. During the 1920s, nativism influenced laws like the Immigration Act of 1924, which established quotas that severely restricted immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.

5. Nativism not only affects policy but also shapes public perception, often leading to stereotypes and discrimination against immigrant communities.

literacy tests

1. Literacy tests became widespread in the late 19th century as part of the Jim Crow laws that sought to restrict voting rights for African Americans.

2. These tests were often administered subjectively, with white registrars having the power to pass or fail applicants based on arbitrary criteria.

3. The complexity of literacy tests could include difficult questions about state constitutions or complex legal concepts, making it nearly impossible for many individuals to pass.

4. Despite being outlawed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the legacy of literacy tests continued to impact voter registration efforts and racial equality in voting.

5. The use of literacy tests was part of a broader strategy of disenfranchisement that included poll taxes and property requirements, all aimed at limiting African American political power.

1882 Chinese Exclusion Act

1. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the first significant federal legislation to exclude a specific nationality from entering the United States.

2. The act was initially set to last for 10 years but was renewed and made permanent in 1902, reflecting ongoing anti-Chinese sentiments.

3. It not only banned Chinese laborers but also denied citizenship to Chinese residents already in the U.S., highlighting deep-rooted racism.

4. The act faced various legal challenges over the years but remained in effect until its repeal in 1943, influenced by the need for China as an ally during World War II.

5. The Exclusion Act set a precedent for later immigration restrictions and contributed to a broader pattern of discriminatory policies targeting various immigrant groups throughout American history.

Jacob Riis, "How the Other Half Lives"

1. 'How the Other Half Lives' photojournalism combined vivid photographs with detailed descriptions to expose the realities of life in New York's slums, significantly influencing public perception of poverty.

2. The publication played a crucial role in motivating progressive reformers and politicians to advocate for housing reforms and better living conditions for the urban poor.

3. Jacob Riis used flash photography techniques to capture images that highlighted the dire circumstances faced by immigrant families, making the invisible visible to a wider audience.

4. The book's impact led to the establishment of laws aimed at improving housing standards, including building codes that addressed overcrowding and sanitation issues.

5. Riis's work not only focused on living conditions but also emphasized the importance of education and job opportunities as essential factors for lifting immigrant families out of poverty.

Jane Addams and Hull House

1. Hull House initially started in a rundown mansion in Chicago's Near West Side and expanded to include multiple buildings offering various services like daycare, educational classes, and cultural activities.

2. The house became a laboratory for social reformers to study urban poverty and advocate for changes in labor laws, public health, and education systems.

3. It hosted numerous immigrant groups, helping them adjust to life in America while also providing resources to advocate for their rights and better living conditions.

4. Hull House played a key role in the establishment of juvenile courts and labor laws, highlighting the connection between social work and legal reform.

5. Jane Addams' work at Hull House earned her the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931, recognizing her efforts to promote peace and social justice.