psy100 research

What does psychology rely on in research?

Empirical evidence and adapts to new data.

What is the scientific method in psychology?

An ongoing process.

What is the role of theory in psychological research?

Typically explain the relationship between two or more variables. they are explanatory and predictive/generative

What is a key requirement for scientific theories and hypotheses?

They must be testable using currently available research techniques.

What does it mean for a scientific theory to be falsifiable?

It must be possible in principle to make an observation that would show it to be false, even if the observation is not made.

What is the principle of parsimony in scientific theories?

It refers to the preference for simplicity in theories.

Independent Variable

Variable that is manipulated in order to see its effect on dependent variable.

Dependent variable

Variable that is measured in order to see how its affected by independent variable.

Conceptual Definition of Variables

Textbook or dictionary definition that explains the general concept

Operational Definition of Variables

Specifies how a variable will be measured, manipulated, or observed in a study. Concrete, measurable terms.

Descriptive Methods

Often concerned with a single variable of interest. Involves the systematic observation and classification behaviour, including surveys, focus groups, case studies, and observational research.

Strengths of Descriptive Approaches

• Case studies and observational research can provide important insights and stimulate further research to test specific hypotheses

Surveys allow us to gather large amounts of information quickly and easily

Focus groups and interviews can provide rich, detailed information that may be lacking from a survey

Potential Problems with Descriptive Methods

Reactivity (Hawthorne Effect): Alteration of behaviour by subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed.

Observer/experimenter bias

Self report bias: social desirability bias and the "better-than-average" effect.

Types of Observation

Naturalistic, Participant, Laboratory.

Naturalistic Observation

Passive observation where observers do not change/alter ongoing behaviour (not intentionally)

Participant Observation

Active observation where the researcher is actively involved in the situation

Laboratory Observation

Systemic observations are made within a laboratory setting (rather than real world)

Correlation Methods

Examine associations between two or more variables (at least two variables of interest). Examine associations between variables without manipulation. Positive, negative, or no relationship between variables.

Correlation≠Causation

Positive Relationship

Variables move in same direction

Negative relationship

Variables move in the inverse direction.

Third Variable Problem

When an observed correlation between two variables can be explained by a third variable that hasn't been accounted for.

Experimental Methods

Examine cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. Involves manipulating an independent variable to determine its impact on a dependent variable. Tightly controlled usually in a laboratory. Participants are randomly assigned to study conditions

Confound

Anything that may unintentionally vary along with the independent variable. They limit our ability to make causal claims.

Random Assignment

Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition in the study

Random Sample

Each member of the interested population have an equal chance of being chosen to participate.

Importance of Random Assignment

Random assignment ensures the groups are equal, on average, on those variables you might be concerned with, as well as variables that are not thought of.

Why are "Double-Blind" Experiments Ideal?

Both participants and experimenters are unaware of which condition the participant is in.

Population

The group that you want to be able to generalize your findings to.

Sample

The group of individuals from the population who are part of your study

Random samples vs Convenience samples

Random: based off chance

Convenience: obtaining a certain group of students from a course to "study"

Quasi-Experiments:

Experimental design where random assignment isn't possible. Risk of potential confounds limit the claims a researcher can make, but they can be useful for studying variables where random assignment isn't ethical.

Field Experiments

Occur in real-world settings rather than in lab.

Random assignment is possible, but researchers have less control over the study

Participants are often unaware.

Validity vs Reliability

Data points scattered everywhere = not valid or reliable.

Data points in specific area, but not right area = reliable but not valid.

Data points in specific area and right area = both reliable and valid.

Interrater reliability

a measure of the consistency and agreement between two or more raters or observers in their assessments, judgments, or ratings of a particular phenomenon or behaviour. Often gets rid of the highest and lowest scores to find the middle ground

Test-retest reliability

measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. The scores from the two tests can then be correlated to evaluate the test for stability over time.

Construct validity

Accuracy of operationalizations. How valid are the measures in the study

External validity

Generalizability of findings.

Internal validity

Ability to make causal claims. Find cause-and-effect relationships

Descriptive Statistics

Organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries. Describe data and use percentages, counts, averages, correlations, etc.

Inferential Statistics

Allow inferences based on data.

Allow extension from sample to population. Inferences are always probabilistic and hypotheses are never proven.

Replication

A study about a phenomenon produces similar results from a previous study of the same phenomenon. Close/exact replications and conceptual replications.

Reproducibility

Study can be duplicated in method and/or analysis

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to notice and remember instances that support your beliefs more than ones that contradict them.

Critical thinking

Ability to think clearly, rationally, and independently

Cross-sectional study

Experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which datas obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages.

Focus groups

Small, often deliberately chosen group of people who engage in a structured discussion on a topic

Generalizations

Extends conclusions to larger populations outside the research sample.

Hypothesis

Proposed explanation, often taking the form "if A happens, B will be the result"

Informed Consent

Permission obtained from a research participant after risks and benefits of an experimental procedure have been thoroughly explained

Interview

Interaction where participants are asked a predetermined set of questions and allowed to answer with any response.

Longitudinal Study

An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals at intervals over a long period of time.

Mean

average

Measure

Method for describing a variables quantity.

Median

Middle number

Meta-analysis

A statistical analysis of many previous experiments on a single topic.

Mixed longitudinal Design

Method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross-section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score in a set of data

Normal Distribution

Symmetrical probability function

Null Hypothesis

States there is no real difference between the two measures.

Objectivity

No personal emotion or bias

Operationalization

Defines constructs in a way that can be measured.

Peer review

Process of having other experts examine research prior to publication

Placebo

Inactive substance or treatment that can't be distinguished from actual substance/treatment.

Publication Bias

Possibility that published studies are not representative of all work done on a particular phenomenon.

Science

Method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation.

Standard Deviation

Measure of how tightly clustered around the mean a group of scores is.

Statistical Significance

Standard for deciding whether the observed result is due to chance

Survey

Descriptive method where participants are asked the same questions.

Theories

Set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena

Validity

Quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions