child development ch 1

accommodation,

Children’s modification of a schema to fit reality that is the result of disequilibrium

adoption study

study that tests whether adopted children are more similar to their biological parents and siblings (who have a similar genetic makeup) or to their adoptive parents and siblings (who share their home environment but are dissimilar genetically)

applied developmental science

approach in developmental psychology that focuses on the application of scientific principles and knowledge to real-life problems

Assimilation

incorporation of new experiences or information into an existing schema that move children from one stage to the next according to Piaget

attrition

dropping out of participants from a research study

basic developmental science

approach in developmental psychology that focuses on description and explanation of basic learning and developmental processes

behavioral genetic studies

studies that address questions about genetic influences on development by measuring the degree of behavioral similarity among people who vary in genetic relatedness

behaviorism

emerged in the early twentieth century with the goal of explaining how people learn new behaviors based on their experiences

bioecological perspective

proposed by Uri Bronfenbrenner, that focuses on how the environment affects human development; this approach highlights development as the product of different nested environmental “systems”

classical conditioning

learning process that occurs when a neutral stimulus takes on new significance after being paired with another meaningful stimulus

cohort-sequential studies

study that follows two or more groups of children of different ages over time, creating a mixture of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs

concurrent validity

degree to which scores on a test correspond to those on another test of the same construct at the same point in time

confederate

an actor who pretends to be a participant but actually works for the researcher

cofounding variable

may relate to both independent and dependent variables, and thus explain the association between the two

constructivist theory

theory of development proposed by Jean Piaget that spotlights children’s active role in learning and development

construct validity

extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure

control group

those who do not receive the treatment

convenience sampling

recruitment of participants into a study based on ease of access to them

correlational study

study that tests associations between two or more variables without manipulating any variables

cross-sectional study

compares children of different ages at roughly the same point in time to enable researchers to explore age-related differences in a certain phenomenon

cultural learning environment

the consistent elements of daily living

culture

refers to the shared physical, behavioral, and symbolic features of a community

dependent variable

variable whose value depends on another (independent) variable(s)

developmental cascades

he idea that changes of one kind can have cascading effects, setting other kinds of changes in motion, both immediately and at later ages

developmental niche

encompasses the physical and social settings of children’s lives, the customs of childcare and child-rearing, and the beliefs and views of caregivers

developmental onset

approximate age when specific skills emerge, such as first words, first steps, first signs of puberty, and so forth

developmental systems theorist

view human behavior to be the product of a complex, ever-changing system, in which many factors produce developmental change

direct assessment

specific task or test that researchers administer to children

discovery-based science

researcher aims to discover and understand what children do and what development looks like without any presuppositions about what might be found

disequilibrium

an imbalance between the schema and reality

ego

the rational component of personality that helps keep inappropriate thoughts, impulses, and desires from rising to consciousness and being acted upon

equilibration

cognitive balance or alignment between existing knowledge and new information

external or ecological validity

refers to the extent to which a test can be applied across different settings or groups of people

face validity

degree to which the purpose of a test is clear to people who look it over

face validity

the purpose of the test (here questions around discipline) is clear to people who look it over

generalizability

refers to the degree to which research findings and conclusions based on a specific study and sample extend to the population at largegeno

genome wide association test

statistical method that uses mathematical modeling and genetic analysis to estimate genetic influences on intelligencehy

hypothesis driven research

research that seeks to examine a specific and measurable question along with specified hypothesesid

id

the primitive biological drives that are present from birth

independent variable

is manipulated to see whether changes follow in the dependent variable

individual differences

the spread or variability among children in various aspects of development, including age onsets, rates of change, and the forms that skills take

information processing theories

focus on how children attend to, manipulate, process, store, and retrieve information

interobserver reliability

refers to the extent to which different observers using a test arrive at the same results

mediator

intervening, explanatory variable that explains the association between the dependent and independent variable

microgenetic study

involves frequent, closely spaced observations of children, for instance, daily or weekly tracking of child learning, and/or detailed observations of learning in real time, such as in a single experimental session in which researchers document children’s changing behaviors from second to second

nativist approach

asserts that people are born with innate, or core, capacities that are essential for human adaptation

naturalistic observations

researchers observe participants in everyday settings, such as at home, school, or on playgrounds

open science

encourage researchers to fully document and share information on a study’s procedures, recruitment methods, participant characteristics, measures, raw data, analyses, and funding sources

operant conditioning

that behaviors increase or decrease depending on whether they are rewarded or punished

physiological assessments

measurements of the functioning of different parts of the body including brain activation, heart rate, blood pressure, eye movements, limb movements, and even the hormones people produce in response to stress

plasticity

the impressive capacity to adapt to changing environments and experiences

predictive validity

reflects the degree to which scores on a test at one point in time predict scores on a similar or related test or criterion

psychodynamic theories

a set of theories that consider personality to be a product of conscious and unconscious forces

psychosexual stage theory

theory developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasized the central role of children’s biological drives, particularly the sex drive, in behavior

psychosocial stage theory

people confront specific challenges in their search for an identity at different stages in the life course

qualitative change

progression through a sequence of distinct stages in children’s thinking and acting

qualitative research

researchers explore in depth a phenomenon without a set of specific hypotheses

quantitative change

gradual changes over time in the amount, frequency, or degree of children’s behaviorsraate

rate of change

refers to the course of change over time, including how fast children progress in their skills

schemas

cognitive structures that provide them with a way to organize information and understand the world

skinner box

animals learn to increase or decrease specific behaviors to obtain food, water, or other types of reinforcement

social desirability bias

participants answer questions in a way they believe is desired or “correct,” rather than truthfully

social learning theory

learning through reinforcement, yet advances on those principles in key ways; social learning theory also emphasizes how children learn new behaviors by imitating others

sociocultural theories

focus on the contexts of child development, building on the work of Lev Vygotsky, and thus placing much weight on the nurture end of the nature-nurture seesaw

stability

that is, whether children who are relatively high or low on a particular behavior or characteristic at a certain point in time are also relatively high or low on the same behavior or characteristic at later times

structured observations

searchers observe participants performing a specific activity

superego

functions as a conscience to ensure that children behave in morally acceptable ways and uphold family and community standards and expectations

vicarious reinforcement

children learn how to behave by watching others get rewarded or punished

zone of proximal development

refers to the distance between what a child can achieve independently versus with the support of a social partner