psychology ch. seven vocabulary

Learning

Relatively permanent change in behavior (observable) or mental associations (invisible/neural) due to experience.

Associative Learning

• Any pairing of two events due to their occurrence together in time and/or space

• Includes Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Learning

• Acquisition of information that changes our behavior, understanding or motivations (usually at a later time)

• Includes Observational Learning and Latent Learning

Classical Conditioning

• Association of stimuli (a stimulus is any event or situation
  that triggers a response) that results in automatic
  responding (respondent behavior)

• Pairing of two stimuli (CS + US) that occurs when they are
  presented together

• CS typically comes just before a US and is learned as the
  cause

• Learner is passive

Pavlov’s Experiment

When a bell occurred just before food was presented,
dogs learned to predict that food was about to be
presented and began to salivate at the sound of the bell
alone

Neutral Stimulus

• Stimulus that does not elicit any response naturally; in
  classical conditioning, the NS becomes the CS after
  repeated pairings with the US

• In Pavlov’s study: bell (before pairing)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

• Any stimulus that naturally elicits a response; anything
  that causes a reflex to occur

• In Pavlov’s experiment: food

Unconditioned Response (UR)

• A reflexive response elicited by a US; US-UR pathway is
  innate, not learned

• In Pavlov’s experiment: salivation (reflex)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• Previously neutral stimulus that elicits the CR; CS-US
  pathway is learned through association

• In Pavlov’s experiment: bell (after pairing)

Conditioned Response (CR)

• A response that occurs only due to the presentation of a
  CS (US no longer present)

• In Pavlov’s experiment: salivation just to the bell

Phases of Learning

-

Acquisition

• In classical conditioning, the building of the association
  between CS and US through pairing; a stimulus gains its
  associative power in acquisition

• In operant learning, the pairing of a response and an
  outcome

Extinction

Disappearance of the CR due to the presence of the CS
being presented alone for an extended period of time
without the US

Spontaneous Recovery

Reoccurrence of a CR [following sudden presentation of
the CS] after extinction

(Stimulus) Generalization

Any stimulus that is similar enough to the originally
acquired CS will have the same effect; responding to
similar CSs in the same way

(Stimulus) Discrimination

Any stimulus that is different enough from the originally
acquired CS will have a different effect; responding
differently [or not at all] to CSs that are different in some
way

Operant Conditioning

• Associative learning of a response with its outcome;
  behavior is learned to be the cause of the outcome [effect]

• Response-Outcome Learning

• Learner must play an active role in producing responses so
  that they are able to attend to outcomes

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes will be more
likely to occur [neural pathways are strengthened] and
behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes will be less
likely to occur [neural pathways are also strengthened –
we learn NOT to do things too]

Reinforcement

Any outcome of a behavior [positive or negative] that
increases the likelihood that the behavior will be
performed in the future

Primary Reinforcer

• Any outcome that satisfies a natural internal drive

• e.g. food, water

Secondary (Conditioned)

Any outcome that acquired reinforcing quality through

Reinforcer

• Pairing with a primary reinforce

• e.g. money, grades

Shaping

Teaching of an entirely new behavior through rewarding
behaviors that are incrementally closer to the target
behavior [by successive approximations]

Contingencies of Reinforcement

-

Positive Reinforcement

• Reward

• Occurrence of a wanted outcome resulting in an increase
  in the response

• e.g. getting a good grade for good studying techniques

Positive Punishment

• Punishment

• Occurrence of an unwanted outcome resulting in a
  decrease in the response

• e.g. getting a bad grade for poor studying technique

Negative Reinforcement

• Removal of an unwanted outcome resulting in an increase
  in the response

• Escape = performing a behavior so that a negative
  outcome stops [e.g. putting up an umbrella once you get
  wet outside]

• Avoidance = performing a behavior so that a negative
  outcome never occurs [e.g. putting up an umbrella before
  you ever get wet]

Negative Punishment

• Removal of a wanted outcome resulting in a decrease in
  the response

• Only punishing relative to what could happen; taking away
  favorable opportunities

• e.g. time-out

Schedules of Reinforcement

-

Continuous Reinforcement

• Outcomes occurring after every single response

• Subject can grow dependent on outcome to continue
  behavior

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

• Only intermittently delivering outcomes; not rewarding or
  punishing after every response

• Better for long-term motivation

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

• Outcome occurs after an exact number of responses

• Highly predictable and controllable

• e.g. only getting paid a commission for each gadget you
  sell

Variable-Ratio Schedule

• Outcome occurs after different (but on average) number
  of responses made

• Can be highly unpredictable but also motivating

• e.g. slot machines

Fixed-Interval Schedule

• Outcome occurs after an exact amount of time regardless
  of when response occurs; response still needs to occur to
  obtain outcome

• e.g. train that comes every 10 minutes

Variable-Interval Schedule

• Outcome occurs after the passage of a different (but on
  average) amount of time regardless of when response
  occurs; response still needs to occur to obtain outcome

• e.g. checking your phone for texts or email

Cognitive Learning

-

Latent Learning

• Learning that is not observable in behavior and is NOT
  specifically reinforced

• Formation of mental associations

Observational/Social Learning

• Learning by watching (and sometimes imitating) others
  and attending to the outcomes of their behavior

• Through observation, we are vicariously reinforced
  (observation of someone else getting reinforcement has
  the same effect as personally- experienced reinforcement)

Modeling

Observing and imitating behavior

Mirror neurons

• Neurons in the frontal lobe that fire almost identically
  whether we are personally taking action or observing
  someone else take the same action

• Mirror neurons are thought to be a foundation of
  imitation and empathy