Democracy and Participation

Representative Democracy

Elected representatives make decisions on the behalf of voters, held accountable in regular elections

Advantages Representative Democracy

Professional politicians are well-informed.

Representatives are held to account.

Representatives consider all members of a community.

Disadvantages Representative Democracy

Representatives are out-of-touch.

Parliament is dominated by two parties.

Lobbyists and interest groups have undue influence.

Social makeup is not diverse.

Direct Democracy

Citizens vote directly on issues, most significant modern example is a referendum

Legitimacy

Power has been legally acquired and is exercised according to the rule of law

Direct Democracy Advantages

Encourages more participation.

Purest form of democracy.

Decisions are more likely to be respected due to legitimacy.

Direct Democracy Disadvantages

Tyranny of the minority.

Voter fatigue.

Average citizen is uneducated/ill-informed. (Brexit leave campaign misinformation contributed to their win, bus advert false claim 'We send the EU £350 million a week, let's fund our NHS instead'

Recall of MPs Act 2015

Allows constituents to force a by-election. E.g. 2018 Ian Paisley Junior survived a recall petition

Participation Crisis

Political engagement and voting levels are so low that the legitimacy of elected governments can be questioned

Elections of particularly high turnout

1964 - Harold Wilson

1974 - Edward Heath

1979 - Margaret Thatcher

1992 - John Major

2024 General Election Turnout

60% - Lowest since 2001

Referendums Examples

2014 Scottish Independence Referendum 84.6%

2016 Brexit Referendum 72.2%Vo

Democratic Deficit

Democracy is not operating effectively because there is a lack of accountability among political bodies

Pluralist Democracy

Influence is dispersed among a wide variety of elected and non-elected bodies, ensuring fair competition between rival groups for influence

Think-Tank

A group established in order to generate ideas, working closely with like-minded political parties to develop policy

Demos (neutral - influenced Blair's policy of devolution)

Lobbyist

A person representing the interests of a particular group or cause in order to influence politicians in its favour

Votes at 16 Advantages

16 year olds can exercise significant responsibility at 16 (marriage, sex, army).

Increased turnout (2014 Ref, 75% 16-17yo voted)

Illogical for 16-17yo to vote in Scottish Parl but not Westminster

Votes at 16 Disadvantages

Parental permission needed to join army and marry before 18 (excluding Scots).

Young people cannot buy alcohol or cigarettes until 18.

16-17 yo in full time education do not pay tax.

18-24 yo turnout lower than other age groups.

Compulsory Voting Benefits Examples

Belgium - 2024 turnout 87.4%

Australia - 2022 Senate turnout 90.5%

Compulsory Voting Advantages

Voting is a civic responsibility like jury service.

Governments more legitimate.

Many low voting areas are ethnic minorities or poorer areas - forces government to better represent.

Educative role. (Australia 2022 Senate turnout 90.5%

Compulsory Voting Disadvantages

High amount of spoiled ballots in Australia (2016 5%, 0.3% in the UK)

Random voting undermines legitimacy of the result

Forcing the public to vote when they are disinterested is an infringement of civil rights

Sectional/interest pressure group

Represents the interests of a particular group within society.

E.g. Muslim Council of Britain represents British Muslims

Cause/promotional pressure group

Promotes a particular issue.

E.g. Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth members are united on a shared interest of protecting the environment

Insider pressure group

Has privileged access to government decision making.

E.g. British Medical Association represents doctors, has specialist information that governments will wish to consult, National Farmers' Union

Outsider pressure group

Lack access to political decision making so need to achieve influence in other ways, like gaining the attention of the government.

E.g. Just Stop Oil targeted stonehenge with coloured custard powder in 2024

Insider Status Downsides

Can be dependant on political circumstances. 1970s Trade Unions in Britain more powerful, Jack Jones (general secretary of TGWU) often called 'the most powerful man in Britain'

Factors contributing to pressure group success

Resources

Ideological compatibility with the government

Popularity

Expertise

Celebrity Endorsement of a Pressure Group

Joanna Lumley and the Gurkha Justice Campaign

Access for Cash - Criticism of Lobbying Firms

2015 Fake firm targeted former foreign secretaries

Labour, Jack Straw, said he had previously used his influence to change EU rules for a company that paid him £60k/anum

Conservative, Malcolm Rifkind, said daily fee between 5-8k

Civil Liberties

The rights individuals possess in relation to the nation state that are legally enforceable (hard law)

Magna Carta

1215

Provides the foundation for British civil liberties, law should be impartial, no freeman should be convicted of a crime unless fairly tried

Bill of Rights

1689

Established the principle of constitutional monarchy bound by the law

Somerset v Stewart

1772

Set the precedent for the elimination of slavery within Britain

Entick v Carrington

1765

Government officials must act in compliance with the Rule of Law

Representation of the People Act

1928

Universal suffrage in the UK (Included women over 21)

Human Rights Act

1998

Incorporated the European Convention of Human Rights into UK law, gave British citizens a clear statement of their civil liberties

Freedom of Information Act

2000

Established a right of access to information acquired by public bodies

Equality Act

2010

Established 9 protected characteristics by which discrimination is illegal

Restrictions on civil freedoms following 9/11

2001 Anti-Terrorism Crime and Security Act, foreign terrorist suspects imprisoned indefinitely without trial.

2006 Terrorism Act - Terrorist suspects held w/o charge for 28 days, 'glorifying terrorism' = crime.

2016 Investigatory Powers Act - authorises retention of personal electronic data and its access for law enforcement

Rights protection in the UK is effective

Parliament passes legislation protecting rights. (2010 Equality Act under Brown, 2013 Coalition legalised same-sex marriage)

Judges and courts protect rights. (2004 A v Secstate part of The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was declared incompatible with HRA)

Pressure groups protect rights (Under New Labour Stonewall was able to equalise the age of consent sexualities to 16 years old as part of the Sexual Offences Act 2000, despite lords pushback)

Rights protection in the UK is ineffective

Parliamentary sovereignty undermines rights protection (British BoR debate, Badenoch said UK would likely have to leave ECHR).

Judges and courts limited by parliamentary sovereignty (The Safety of Rwanda Act was passed in April 2024)

Unsuccessful pressure groups/elitism in PGs. (Failure of Liberty to prevent the Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act from being passed in 2021 which limited protest rights in the UK)

Example of delegate theory

Lib Dem MP Stephen Lloyd promised to support Brexit if reelected, despite personal and party beliefs

Example of trustee theory

Tom Brake voted against Brexit in parliament despite the majority of his constituents voting in favour of Brexit in 2016

Example of mandate theory

2018 Labour MP Frank Field stood as independent, lost seat despite well respected and long serving

Media ownership in Britain

The entire national press is owned by 7 companies with the top four accounting for 90% of sales (Barclay brothers own the Telegraph and Spectator, strong Brexit supporters but out-of-touch billionaires)

Think tank examples

Demos (neutral - influenced Blair's policy of devolution), The Adam Smith Institute, Liberty, the Fabian Society