Chapter 1-4

Ap research

What research is not

It is not just gathering information

It is not just to find hard-to-locate information

It is not moving facts from one place to another

What research is

It is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information/“data” to help understand a phenomenon more

The Seven Distinct Steps of Research:

You start with a problem you want to understand (it’s something you are interested in) … it could also just be an unanswered question

You would then try to specify what you want to do in the research (aka make a goal!)

Divide the problem into more manageable sections/“subproblems”

You would then figure out assumptions and hypotheses regarding your research topic

You would create a plan to address the problem and its finer points/subproblems

You would collect, organize, and analyze the data relating to the problem (and its subproblems)

You would then use that data in order to interpret its meaning and how it relates to the problem and subproblems

Two general assumptions underlie many research studies

The problem/phenomenon being researched is lawful and predictable (its not random)

Cause & Effect relationships account for “certain patterns observed” in the problem/phenomenon

Positivism

With the right tools, scientists can uncover absolute/undeniable truths about cause and effect relationships within the physical world and human experience

Post-positivism- 

they believe in probability more than the absolute after analyzing data. They also carry some bias as to their investigations

Constructivism-

reality is something humans have created to help aid people into finding solutions as a result of the data they have gathered. They know they have biases and are upfront with it. “Emphasis on subjectivity and bias- rather than objectivity.” Take data from various sources/perceptions/interpretations

Phenomenology

it focuses on human EXPERIENCES/what they feel. They ask a lot of “what is it like…” questions. This type of orientation is similar to Constructivist thinking; both ideas think people’s ideals/individual realities are important.

Pragmatism

approach situations in a sensible, realistic, and practical way, focusing on what will work in the real world rather than being guided by abstract theories, ideals, or emotions

(pragmatic = practical)

Realism-

Similar to pragmatism

*** THE HUMAN MIND HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH THE TRUTH

(THE TRUTH IS VERY OBJECTIVE and th emind can’t alter it)

action research,praxis, and social action

they experiment and analyze the result to then experiment again in order to create a better result

Research Tool-

a mechanic/strategy researchers use to collect and interpret data

Research Methodology-

the general way researchers carry out a research project. It helps people figure out what tools to use during their research

General Tools of Research

Library and Resources:

Computer Technology:

Measurement: used mostly for QUANTITATIVE research.

Statistics:more often used in psychology, medicine, and business than history, musicology, and literature Descriptive Statistics:  helps readers capture the GENERAL idea of the data/the “average” of the data and its variability with other data Inferential Statistics: summarizes the data to help decide if the variables between the different information is too different or if it’s just a mistake/error in the calculations

Language:  1. can help us understand what is going on in the world  2.Using labels with these words can help lessen the generalization of that terms 3.helps researchers find connections between topics which would not have been seen if they did not categorize the word 4. even more and helps people communicate their true thoughts to others more. Henceforth, learning a new language can help with this too.

***The Human Mind:  It is very constructive and is the most important tool for research.  It is good to give it a goal/focus in order for it to work as well as it should.

Purpose statement

A sentence or two which helps direct what it is you are trying to achieve from your research study. It helps give primary goals.

 “The purpose of this study is…”

Guidelines for writing to communicate

be specific/concise

keep your purpose in mind/focus on your discussion/research

give an overview of what you will talk about in future pages..  show how the topics overlay (“advanced organizer”)

Organize ideas into general and specific categories (use heading and subheading to help readers through the discussion)

Use concrete examples to make “abstract ideas more understandable”

Use figures/tables to help organize ideas/present ideas efficiently(and findings too)

At the end of a major section/chapter = summarize! (it helps you and the reader)

Understand that you will have MANY MANY drafts

always check/repeatedly check to see if you missed any mistakes in your final draft.

(Page 41-44):  The Human Mind

Critical Thinking: analyze topics/discussion related to your research /phenomenon… it helps logically reason why different tests did not work and how one can avoid that. It evaluates the , “accuracy, credibility, and worth of information, and lines of reasoning” verbal reasoning, Argument analysis, Probabilistic Reasoning, Decision Making, Hypothesis Testing Different research need a different type of critical thinking

Deductive Logic:  beings with one/more "premise"/assumptions that the researcher thinks is true… from there they can logically assume their conclusions are also true. (if… then… sentences?) help with creating hypotheses and testing theories.

Inductive Reasoning: it begins with an observation. Observe, create a similar scenario, and see if it led to the same result (repeat) to then create a conclusion from everything you have observed. Observe a sample in order to conclude about a larger group/population.

The Scientific Method

its approach as to when a  researcher finds a problem with a goal, creates a hypothesis that could potentially solve the problem,  gathers data for the research, and analyzes the data to see if it supports the hypotheses or. Not.

Theory Building

Theory: an organized body of concepts and principles intended to explain a phenomenon. It is supported by well-documented findings and credible evidence (paired with sound, logical reasoning)

Abduction: Ideas which have been brainstormed (which are also ideal and plausible) to help BEST explain the phenomenon. Usually further questions after the creation of a hypothesis. New data = might change theories

(Page 48-49):  Exploring Research in Your Field

Peer-Reviewed Research Report: they can help you and you can help them

Non-Peer Reviewed Report: it might be biased and it is harder to find your mistakes you might try to confirm expectations even if it does not have supporting evidence Mistaking dogma for fact you might let your emotions override logic and objectivity you might mistake correlations with causations

Basic Research:

Projects/Research which strives to understand a “theoretical conception” for a topic even more

Applied Research:

A project which helps people’s decisions for practical problems

Four situations to avoid when considering a problem for research purposes:

A project should not be a “ruse” to gain self-understanding (it should be for finding NEW knowledge)

Its purpose is not supposed to be just to compare two sets of data

It’s not supposed to be calculating a similar “coefficient” between two sets of data

It should not be easy to give a yes-or-no solution

Choosing an Appropriate Problem or Question:

Look around you … continually ask questions about things around you (see, hear, feel, and read)… ask how, what, why, when questions.

Read current research about the topic.. it could be used in your own project

seek the advice of experts/teachers

Go to Professional Conferences/sessions relating to the topic

5. Choose a topic which makes you interested in it/excited/motivated!

6. Choose something that OTHERS will find interesting (so they read it). It should add more knowledge into what people know

7. Be realistic about what you want to accomplish

Purpose Statement

helps focus a researcher’s attention during the project

• it is carefully phrased to capture the goals of the total research project

Steps to make a purpose statement

(Page 56-60) Writing a Purpose Statement:

Definition: It helps focus a researcher’s attention during the project it is carefully phrased to capture the goals of the total research project

describe your problem/question clearly and completely The statements must be limited/manageable for the researcher to investigate

Think about how feasible the statement is to your research  make sure that it states things clearly (if you don’t.. you might be creating a purpose statement which is too broad of a topic for you to handle!)

say PRECISELY what you mean Be direct! YOU DON’T NEED FLUFF

State the problem to show unbiased opinions towards its solutions for this project/topic

Edit your work! Choosing your words wisely! Get it peer reviewed!

Sub-Problems:

 the main problem is split into “smaller units”

• it's easier to address and resolve… it’s more specific

Pseudo- Sub Problems

 Questions/problems which have to do with a researchers decisions and plan for the project rather than questions directly for solving the main problem(and its smaller parts)

Charaterisitcs of a sub-problem

Each subproblem should be a researchable issue in its own right… it should be in the form of a question

It must be tied to the interpretation of data claim, explain, REASONING

It must be “Checked” against the main problem Do they extend ABOVE the main problem Do they address all aspects of the main problem?

There should not be a lot of subproblems there are usually 2-6 (more than that = specify your main problem even more) Are they procedural issues? Can you combine some of the problems? Is the main problem too big?

Research Problem Delineation/minimize understanding by….

Identifying a general/relevant Theoretical/conceptual framework

State one(or more) hypotheses

Identifying the general concepts and specific variables that help focus the investigation

defining terms

stating underlying assumptions

identifying delimitations and limitations

Theoretical Framework:

1.  a preexisting/newly proposed set of concepts and principles that could help explains the relationships in the topic/phenomenon

   1. It can help provide a foundation for hypotheses about what the data might reveal

Conceptual Framework

1. identifies key concepts and connections that help researchers view the topic’s processes and develop a meaning for the topic/phenomenon

2. use of diagrams/figures

3. it helps bring concepts of the topic together (and help organize ideas even more)

A priori Hypothesis:

1. hypothesis made before the research even begins… it helps to guide researchers through their investigations

Research Hypothesis

1. educated guesses which are able to have a “devil’s-advocate” hypothesis linked to it

   1. usually with data that researchers hope will support the hypothesis

Null Hypothesis

1. A hypothesis with no differences, no consistency between variables, or no patterns

   1. usually during statistical analyses 

   2. usually isn’t true

Variable:

1. any characteristic, experience, behavior, or outcome in a research that has two or more possible outcomes

   1. concept and variable =“overlap”

   2. usually in experimental studies

Independent Variable:

1. a variable which is not manipulated/changed. It is studied to find what the cause of a topic/phenomenon is

Dependent Variable:

1. this is changed/depends on the independent variable indirectly. It is the “effect”

Mediating Variable

1.  aka an intervening variable. The independent variable affects this DIRECTLY.

Moderating Variable

1. an independent variable DOES NOT influence this variable. It provides context and conditions (potential ones) that alter/moderate the independent variable's effects.

   1. usually called “risk factors or protective factors” in research papers

• avoid circular definitions

• = the terms to be defined are in the definitions itself (self confidence.. but you use confidence in the definition.. “confidence in oneself”… you still don’t know what confidence means)

terms

• include an operation definition = defines variables in terms of how it can be identified/asses in the project

• Dictionary definitions are not reliable to help explain what a term really means

Assumptions

• without this, the research problem does not exist

• assumptions which are correlated to the problem must be openly addressed

  • “what am I taking for granted with respect to my problem or question?”

Limitations and Delimitations

• it is important to explain what a researcher is not going to do = aka “delimitations”

• It helps place more boundaries/keep the research focused

• there are weaknesses in their projects that could affect the impact/credibility of the conclusions= “limitations”

  • honest researchers should openly address these

  • usually talked about in the final research project/research proposal

Importance of the Study

• It helps explain the reasoning behind doing the study in the first place

  • “Does this study even have practical value?”

  • “Will this help anybody?”

• It should be expressed in the beginning of the research project/paper

• Could help increase the  amount of people who would read (about) the paper

Writing the First Chapter or Section of a Research Proposal

1. You must present your problem in a larger context to help readers/other understand your research more clearly

   1. it's usually a chapter/section in the beginning of the research project

Generally after this, you woulddiscuss the findings of other researcherswith a similar topic as yours and then analyze its significance with your study.

9 steps of writing the first section of the proposal: 

state the subproblems write the purpose statement and see if there are areas in it which  could be further explored, if there are words which show how you are going to interpret data, and write a subproblems including a word for interpreting data

identify/create a theoretical/conceptual framework

state a priori hypotheses

identify/define key context/terms and variables that your study focuses on

write assumptions

identity/describe delimitations (your boundaries in the study)

identify/describe limitations

Explain why you are doing this study (why is this important?)

Write your proposal

5 steps of refining your research question:

Conduct a literature review (THOROUGH)

Think concretely about how to conduct the steps you must take imagine walking through the WHOLE process literally, mentally walk through it

Discuss with others about your research problem/question/topic PEER REVIEW!

Remember to be patient and motivated! This will take time (a LOT of it)

Remember that you will have many drafts revisions WILL be made (if you don’t then you did something wrong)

literature review has many benefits: 

It can help you understand what others have not researched about yet and if they solved some of your subproblems yet (give you less work)

It can give you new ideas,perspectives, and approaches

It can help give you contacts if you need advice/a community to talk about the topic with

It can alert you to controversial issues and gaps in understanding that are not solved yet… you can address it in your own work!

It can give you examples on how to solve “methodical and design issues”

It can show you data resources you did not know about

It can introduce you to tools that others have made and EFFECTIVELY used

It can help you interpret/analyze your data/discoveries more effectively… it can help you compare and contrast your work with others doing a similar topic

It gives you confidence to know that your study is important and that others are onboard this research topic (also doing grueling hours of work)

Strategies for Locating Related Literature

Identify one/more key words… you can find the terms in your main problem/subproblem

Using Online Databases… using easy search and open-access journals

Consult With Reference Librarians = DO NOT BE AFRAID TO ASK THEM!!! It saves time and it’s not as scary as you think!

Look on the Internet!.. Search engines (keywords)

Use citations and reference lists of scholars of the past  “we suggest that you track down any references you see cited by three or more other researchers. Such references are clearly influencing current work in your field and should not be overlooked”… ok :)

Mind Mapping - Planning your Literature Review

Write the Problem

Write each Subproblem

Brainstorm topics - these topics become your agenda

Use the library catalog, online databases, and other sources related to your agenda

Using Your Library Time Efficiently 

Before going to the library, create a place to store all your resources Maybe make your own database! A spreadsheet! Examples: Biblioscape, EndNote, RefWorks, BiblioExpress, Mendeley, ReadCube, and Zotero Some programs can make reference lists for you

Identify the material you want to read and see if the LIbrary has them make a list of every place/database you looked into and what keywords you used Let computers make lists/organize for you Check the library holdings for the books and sources you find

Make an organized plan for fining sources organize them by data, location, material, ect!

Track your sources DOWN >:) find out if the sources were.. found and used, found but not used, and not found

Find something useful? -> record bibliographic details and details about its contents.. take notes of it its theoretical perspective, data collection methods, and details about the samples, what the researcher found, and conclusions take notes if there are some limitations to the source or even the research  itself (was the topic to big? Was the reasoning faulty? Did they have credible sources?)  Make haste slowly = don’t write note you wont understand later

Identify strategies to gain sources not available now put it on hold, recall it, submit a request, check for a free option, order the book, use an online document delivery service

Practical Application Evaluating the Research of Others

It can help you see which ideas, finds, and conclusions are credible and which ones you should not use (and reasonably discredit)

It can help you find and compare inconsistent findings from research studies

If can help you understand what YOU need to improve upon

When you are no longer encountering new viewpoints,

you can be reasonably sure that you are reasonably knowledgeable about critical parts of the related literature/topic.

Organizing and Synthesizing the Literature into a Cohesive Review 

identify common themes

show how approaches to the topic changed

compare and contrast varying theoretical perspectives on the topic

describe general trends

identify faulty/discrepant/contradictory findings. How hypotheses as to why this is

Writing a Clear and Cohesive Literature Review

(Page 99-102)Practical Application Writing the Literature Review

Writing a Clear and Cohesive Literature Review

Have an unbiased mind… be open and focused on what you are trying to find

Make a plan for how you are going to organize your review overall make it broad and then specify (an inverted triangle)

Continually “emphasize relatedness to your research problem” every source you mention should not be reviewed just one… it should be like an integral web of analysis and comparisons between different works no relation between works = don’t include it

Give transitional phrases,sentences, or paragraphs to help readers understand… give something to tell readers you are changing topics/the situation

Know the difference between describing and plagiarizing  plagiarizing = making another’s work your own AND not giving enough credit to the researcher AND only slightly changing the wording of the information you found/yoinked

Give credit where credit is due AND CORRECTLY

Minimize direct quotations of other’s works only do it if you have a REALLY GOOD REASON Make it your own! Not just copy-paste >:( Check how much you can quote (check with the publisher/copyright holder)

Summarize… gather all ideas up and explain why you talked about it… a synopsis

There will be many drafts

Peer-review! Ask others!!

Research Design

“the overall structure for the procedures the researcher follows, the data the researcher collects, and the data analyzes the researcher conducts.”

research design = planning

Planning a General Approach

People… problems/question relations to people and social interactions, crime, rehabilitation, medical treatments, language, religion, ect.

Things…animals, plants, microorganisms, inanimate objects, matter, space

Records… newspapers, journals, mission statements, census reports, internet history, speeches, ect.

Thought and Ideas…beliefs, ideologies, semantics, poetry, and political cartoon

Dynamics and Energy… human interactions(?), physics, atomic/nuclear energy, mechanics, oceanic energy, ect.

The Nature and Role of Data in Research 

Data are transient and ever changing.

primary data

the most valid and truth-telling

people talking about an accident they saw first hand

secondary data

comes from the primary data

• a newspaper talking about the accident

Planning for Data Collection

What data is needed? What are thier characteristics? Observations? Responses? Documents? Ect.

Where is the data located? Library? Internet? Ect.

How will you obtain the data? with privacy laws and confidentiality agreements?

What limits will be placed on the nature of acceptable data? restrictions = “criteria for the admissibility of data” if you don’t do this then you might have too broad of a topic/research project

How will the data be interpreted? What will you do with this data? How will this answer/solve your problem/subproblem?

Quantitative

• To explain and predict

• Confirm and validate

• Test theory

Qualitative

• Describe and explain

• Explore and interpret

• Build theory

Mixed-Methods Design…

• counting data but then using it in a qualitative investigation

• During studies of human behavior

Deciding whether to use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach

(Page 115-116) Choosing a General Research Approach

Deciding whether to use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach

Consider that other people might have divergent but equally sound “realities” = qualitative

Consider what your research question needs

Consider if its foundation is found in literature if it's weak or. Nonexistent when talking about literature = do qualitative

Consider how much you want to discover Skimming the surface = quantitative Going in depth with a small # of participants = qualitative

Consider how much time you have for the research project

Consider how willing you are with interacting with others in your study

Consider how comfortable working without structure feels qualitative = less structure and more explorative high tolerance for ambiguity needed

Are you able to organize and draw inferences for a large body of information?

How good are your writing skills qualitative researchers= excellent wiritng skiils Communicating thoughts. clearly = very important for any research project

Action Research

focuses on an existing problem in the hopes of improving the current state of the phenomenon and gain a desired outcome

Case Study

qualitative: data is then linked/analyzed to one person/program/event to try and understand a misunderstood/not explored situation

Content Analysis

Detailed and systematic examination of a specific material to find patterns, themes, or biases in the material

Correlational Research

statistical investigation: relationship between two or more variables… it’s looking at it from a surface level (not in depth)

Design-based Research

multistep, iterative study : structural strategies /technologies are implemented, analyzed, and modified to find what factors influence learning/performance

Developmental Research

observational-descriptive research to compare people in different groups. It is usually for developmental trends

Ethnography

a qualitative inquiry that involves a in-depth study of a cultural group. In a natural setting

Experimental Research

Participants. are randomly assigned to groups that undergo various researcher-imposed treatments/interventions.. it is then assessed to see the effects of the research

Ex post facto Research

one looks at conditions that happened and collects data and analyzes if there was a relationship between. conditions and the characteristics/behaviors of the phenomenon

Grounded Theory Research

qualitative research: create theory from many stages of data collection and interpretation

Historical Research

an effort to reconstruct/interpret historical events from gathering relevant historical documents and/or oral history

Narrative Inquiry

qualitative research: stories and recollections of others with the same experience as the phenomenon is analyzed

Observation Study

Quantitative research to observe behavior. Systematically and with as much amount of objectivity as possible

Phenomenological Research

qualitative: to understand participants’ perspectives and views of physical and social realities

Quasi-experimental Research

similar to experimental research but the assignments are randomized

Survey Research

Determines the incidence,frequency, and distribution of certain characteristics in a population

- common in business,sociology, and government research

Enhancing the Credibility of Your Findings

Triangulization -

controlled laboratory study - control environmental conditions,measurements, and other experimental treatments

Extensive time in the field

Unobtrusive Measures: reactivity = when people do not behave naturally because they know they are being observed

Thick description - used commonly in qualitative research

Respondent Validation : asks if participants agree with the conclusions usually for qualitative research

Analysis of contradictory data (like discrepant perspectives/quantitative outliers) revises the hypothesis/assertion until the data does not have discrepancies

Follow-up studies specifically designed to eliminate alternative explanations for findings

Enhancing the Generalizability of Your Findings

A naturalistic, real-world setting (not artificially made/control)

A representative sample = bring a sample and make a conclusion of it’s group/category overall you might have to specify characteristics to limit very broad topics

replication in a different context = shows that the conclusions is applicable for diverse situations

Substantial Phenomena

An astronomer’s measurements of patterns and luminosity from light from the night sky

Intangible Phenomena

Trying to examine how much a student has learned

(using achievement tests instead of measurement tools like a telescope)

&)trying to examine interpersonal dynamics in a group

Nominal Scales

it names/labels each data point

(do nothing to explain the quantity of something )

Ordinal Scales

it is in terms of the symbols (> and <) IT. RANKS DATA! -it can help determine the median of the data set

Interval Scales

1. it has equal units of measurement

the zero point is placed arbitrarily

Ratio Scales

1. equal measurement units

AN ABSOLUTE ZERO POINT

Face Validity

• On the surface the assessment strategy seems to have valid results.. It is not truly reliable = onlySUBJECTIVE judgement

Content Validity

• the extent to an assessment tool/procedure reflects every part of the characteristic

• usually when trying to assess people’s achievement in a study (usually through paper—and pencil tools or a set of hands-on tasks)

Criterion Validity.

• the extent to which the results of an assessment.  is similar to another assessment  (related characteristics though)

• Can also be called “predictive validity”

Construct validity

• an assessment strategy gains credible results from a characteristic that can’t be observed but presumed to exist

• Ex:: motivation, happiness, racial prejudice

Interrater reliability/Interrater agreement

•  two researchers analyze the same performance/product and have the same results/conclusions

Test-retest reliability

•  the extent to which a single assessment tool results in the same conclusion for one person for a small time period

Equivalent-forms reliability

the extent to which two different versions of the same assessment tools have similar results

Internal Consistency Reliability

• the extent to which all of the items/other tasks from a single assessment tool has similar results

Mathematically Determining the Reliability of an Assessment Strategy

Get two measures for each individual in a reasonably large group of individuals by… having two different graders evaluate the same performance per participant giving the same assessment tool to individuals at two different times Give each participant 2 similar versions of the assessment tool Giving only one assessment instrument but calculatingí subscores for the instrument (internal consistency reliability)

Calculating a similar coefficient that expresses how much. the results. of the assessments are similar to each other

Enhancing the Reliability of an Assessment Strategy

Identify specific, concrete criteria to be used in. categorizing/rating a characteristic, behavior, or other variable Usually for when subjectivity is needed (also. Usually a graph/illustration goes along with this)

An assessment included a structured paper-and-pencil/performance based instrument constantly for all entities of the investigation ***aka standardization! (Sometimes doing so might hinder the validity of results…)

Train racers to apply similar criteria … like with Ms. Solak being taught how to “score correctly” during our presentations(final gradings)