Psychology Lecture Notes Review

Flashcards covering key vocabulary terms and definitions from the lecture notes on the history of psychology, research methods, brain structures, consciousness, sleep, and sensation & perception.

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt focused on understanding the conscious experience through introspection, breaking down mental processes into the most basic components.

Introspection

examining one’s own conscious experience. Part of Structuralism

Functionalism

William James idea that focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior, studying how mental processes help people adapt to their environment.

Gestalt Psychology

School of psychology that emphasized perception and organization of sensory input, suggesting we perceive patterns and wholes, not just individual parts ("The whole is greater than the sum of its parts").

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud idea that focused on the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences, suggesting much of our behavior is influenced by hidden thoughts and desires (Id, Ego, and Superego).

Behavioralism

A school of psychology that focused on observing and controlling behavior, studying how learning occurs through consequences.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning by associating two stimuli, so that a neutral stimulus eventually triggers a response (e.g., Pavlov’s dog).

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning by consequences, where behavior is strengthened by rewards or weakened by punishments.

Humanism

(Maslow, Rogers) idea that emphasizes free will, personal growth, and human potential, suggesting individuals strive for self-actualization.

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's theory that individuals must satisfy basic needs before pursuing growth.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Rogers' humanistic concept of acceptance without judgment,

Client-Centered Therapy

A humanistic therapy approach where the patient takes the lead role in their own therapy,

Cultural Psychology

A subfield of psychology that studies how culture shapes psychology, differentiating between individualistic and collectivistic societal values.

Individualistic Societies

Cultures that value independent, personal success.

Collectivistic Societies

Cultures that value group harmony and shared success.

Social Psychology

how people influence each other, including topics like prejudice, attraction, interpersonal conflict, and attributions.

Biopsychology

examines how the structure and function of the nervous system generate behavior.

Personality Psychology

A psychology subfield that studies the patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make someone unique

Clinical Psychology

focused on diagnosing and treating psychological disorders and maladaptive behaviors, often using therapies like cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

addresses both thought patterns and behaviors to treat psychological disorders.

Developmental Psychology

A psychology subfield that studies how mental and physical processes change throughout development, from infancy to adulthood

Health Psychology

A psychology subfield that examines how health and illness are shaped by the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors, known as the biopsychosocial model.

Sensation

The process when your sensory organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc.) detect raw information, such as light waves hitting your eyes or pressure on your skin.

Perception

The process by which the brain organizes, interprets, and gives meaning to raw sensations, influenced by attention, past experiences, and expectations.

Deductive Reasoning

A type of logical analysis where results are predicted according to a general premise.

Inductive Reasoning

A type of reasoning where conclusions are drawn from specific observations or empirical data.

Theory

A well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena, often used to form hypotheses.

Hypothesis

A tentative and testable statement (prediction) about the relationship between two or more variables, usually an "if-then" statement, and is falsifiable.

Empirical Research

A research approach where researchers follow a particular methodology and collect their own data to observe, analyze, and describe phenomena.

Case Studies

A type of research design that focuses on one individual, typically in an extreme or unique psychological circumstance, providing in-depth information.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method involving the observation of behavior in its natural setting without intervention.

Surveys

A research method using a list of questions to gather data from a large sample of individuals.

Archival Research

A research method that uses past records or existing data sets to answer research questions or establish relationships.

Observer Bias

A research bias where observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations, especially in naturalistic observation.

Confirmation Bias

A research bias where an individual ignores evidence that disproves their existing ideas or beliefs.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between two things when no such relationship actually exists.

Experimenter Bias

A research bias where researcher expectations skew the results of a study, often resolved with double-blinding.

Participant Bias

A research bias where participant expectations skew the results of a study, sometimes leading to the placebo effect and resolved with single or double-blinding.

Placebo Effect

A participant bias where individuals show improved results despite taking a "placebo" treatment, due to their expectations.

Double Blinding

A research technique where both the researchers and the participants are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group, used to combat experimenter and participant bias.

Single Blinding

A research technique where the participants are unaware of which group they are in (experimental or control), but the researchers know.

Cross-Sectional Study

A research design that compares multiple groups of individuals (e.g., different age groups) at a single point in time.

Longitudinal Study

A research design that involves taking multiple measurements from the same group of individuals over an extended period.

Attrition

The phenomenon in longitudinal studies where subjects drop out of the study over time.

Correlation

A relationship between two or more variables where, if correlated, one variable changes as the other does.

Correlation Coefficient

A number ranging from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Confounding Variable

An unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest in a study

Experimental Group

The group of participants in an experiment that experiences the manipulated variable or receives the treatment.

Control Group

The group of participants in an experiment that does not experience the manipulated variable or receive the treatment, used for comparison.

Random Assignment

The process by which participants in an experiment have an equal chance of being put into any experimental or control group, helping to ensure groups are comparable.

Operational Definition

A precise definition of what is being studied and how it is measured in a research experiment.

Variable

A characteristic or factor on which participants in a study can vary.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable in an experiment that may be directly controlled or manipulated by the researchers.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable in an experiment that is measured in the participant and may be influenced by changes in the independent variable.

Population

The entire group of individuals that is the subject of interest in a research study.

Sample

A smaller selection of individuals drawn from the larger population, intended to represent the population in a study.

Random Sampling

The gold standard for selecting a sample from a population, ensuring each member has an equal chance of being included, thus promoting representation and preventing bias.

Statistically Significant

A property of research results indicating that the observed findings are very unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Reliable

A characteristic of measurements or results that are consistent over time, across different situations, and among various raters.

Valid

A characteristic of a measurement or study that accurately measures what it intends to measure.

Frontal Lobe

A region of the brain involved in decision-making, planning, problem-solving, motor control, and speech production (Broca’s area).

Broca's Area

A key brain area located in the frontal lobe, primarily responsible for speech production; damage here results in difficulty speaking but intact comprehension.

Parietal Lobe

A brain region involved in spatial awareness and sensory integration, processing touch and body position.

Temporal Lobe

A brain region crucial for hearing, memory, and language comprehension (Wernicke’s area).

Wernicke's Area

A key brain area located in the temporal lobe, primarily responsible for language comprehension; damage here results in fluent but nonsensical speech.

Occipital Lobe

A brain region dedicated to vision and visual processing.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication between them.

Lateralization

The concept that the brain hemispheres are associated with specialized functions, with the left hemisphere controlling the right side of the body and vice versa.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in fear, aggression, and other emotional responses.

Hippocampus

A brain structure crucial for learning and memory consolidation.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure that regulates homeostasis (e.g., hunger, thirst, temperature, hormones) and controls the fight/flight response.

Thalamus

A sensory relay station in the brain that directs incoming sensory information to appropriate cortical areas.

Cerebellum

A brain structure vital for balance, motor coordination, and fine motor control.

Cell Body (Soma)

The main part of a neuron that maintains the neuron's health and contains the nucleus.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive messages/signals from other neurons.

Axon

A long, slender projection of a neuron that carries electrical signals away from the cell body towards other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty, insulating substance that covers the axon, helping the electrical signal move faster and more efficiently.

Axon Terminal

The end of the axon where neurotransmitters are released into the synapse.

Synapse

The tiny gap between neurons where neurotransmitters cross to transmit signals.

Vesicles

Small sacs in the axon terminals that store neurotransmitters before release.

Action Potential

An electrical signal that travels down the axon of a neuron, characterized as an "all-or-nothing" event.

Depolarization

A change in a neuron's electrical charge where the interior becomes less negative, making it more likely to fire an action potential.

Hyperpolarization

A change in a neuron's electrical charge where it becomes more negative than its resting state, making it less likely to fire an action potential.

Threshold of Excitation

The minimum level of electrical charge needed to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

Neuron Resting State

The state of a neuron when it is not firing, characterized by a more negative charge inside the cell compared to outside, maintained by the sodium-potassium pump.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A brain imaging technique that measures brain activity and blood flow, providing good resolution for changes over time.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A brain imaging technique that provides detailed structural images of the brain but does not measure activity.

PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

A brain imaging technique that shows activity in different parts of the brain by detecting radioactive tracers.

EEG (Electroencephalography)

A brain imaging technique that records electrical activity in the brain via electrodes placed on the scalp.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and integrating information.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of the nerves that extend throughout the rest of the body, connecting the CNS to organs and muscles.

Somatic Nervous System

A division of the PNS that controls voluntary movement and transmits sensory and motor information.

Autonomic Nervous System

A division of the PNS that controls involuntary processes such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A division of the ANS responsible for the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate and inhibiting digestion during stress.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A division of the ANS responsible for "rest and digest" functions, stimulating digestion and contracting the bladder to conserve energy.

Consciousness

An individual’s awareness of both internal (thoughts, emotions) and external (physical senses, social information) stimuli.

Biological Rhythms

Internal cycles of biological activity, such as body temperature, hormone levels, and sleep, controlled by the hypothalamus.

Circadian Rhythm

A 24-hour biological cycle connected to nature’s light/dark cycle, primarily controlling the sleep/wake cycle.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

The brain’s clock mechanism located in the hypothalamus, which uses light information to synchronize the circadian rhythm with the outside world.

Sleep Debt

The cumulative effect of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis or disturbances to regular sleep patterns.