A History of Western Society Chapter 12

First Decade

Inflation, prices of grain, livestock, and dairy rose

Little Ice Age

Severe weather patterns bring storms which ruin crops - leads to Great Famine

Great Famine

1315-1322, Famine due to heavy storms/weather that ruin crops, no long distance food transportation has been invented. Contemporaries interpret as a recurrence of the "seven lean years" (Genesis 42)

Results of Great Famine

Less calories meant disease susceptibility, less energy mean workers had lower production, so lower output of food, endless cycle.

Typhoid Fever

Struck in 1310's killing off livestock as well as people, perpetuating famine.

Languedoc - Agrarian Failure

Multiple poor harvests in the first half of the 14th century, sett the stage for the Black Death

Social Consequences of Famine

Abandonment of homesteads, increase in vagabonds, poor had to sell property for food so rich farmers were eating up poorer neighbors.

Marriage was postponed b/c of harvests, which resulted in less kids and lowered the population.

Closely linked international trade resulted in global consequences from small events - sick sheep = no wool = no weavers OR farmers.

Unrest rose, Jews and the rich were targeted

Edward II

Ruled 1307-1327, used Parliament to set price controls on livestock after disease had inflated it, and then ale which was made from barley, a crop hit by storms. He tried to snap up grain from abroad, but most countries weren't exporting or it was snatched by pirates/black markets.

Origins Black Death

Italy opened Strait of Gibraltar, advanced ships could trade year round, creating constant spread of rats w/ plague

Disputes over how it got to Crimea (Silk Road vs Khan Djani-Beg's wars in the Crimea) but it spread from there over Europe.

1347: Genoese ships bring it to Messina, hits Venice in 1348. By June it reaches England, all of Europe is contaminated

2 types bubonic: transmitted by flea, pneumonic: human to human.

Could spread b/c of low sanitation, overcrowding, and low living standards

Mistranslation: atra mors , which is dreadful death, was mistranslated as black death and it stuck.

Effects of Black Death

Caused an agonizing growth the size of a nut/apple in the armpit, groin, or neck called buba (hence bubonic plague). If it was lanced/drained, one could recover, but after that black blotches appeared under the skin (from bleeding). Finally one would cough blood, and all human waste would be bloody and fetid.

Many blamed Jews, death/poverty spawned bigotry and Jews were massacred across Europe. 16k were said to be killed in Strasbourg in 1939, but an exaggeration

City dwellers who could move to countryside did, as it was unaffected by the rats

Hospitals could only offer shelter, compassion, and care for the dying.

As it hit intermittently from the 1360's to 1400, people got more aware and more conscious of ways to avoid it, including a lowering of the population growth so the population could be nourished and strong against the disease.

Giovanni Boccaccio

Italian writer (1313-1375), described the disease and predicted how it spread, saying that close contact and the presence of the infected nearby was spreading the plague.

Deaths from the Black Plague

No population figures, but the most data survives in England, where approx. 1.4 out of 4.2 million died in all of the Plague's attacks.

Italy's dense cities had great losses, Florence lost 1/2-2/3 of its pop. of 85k when the Plague came in 1348. During 1349, 500-600 died everyday in Vienna.

Swept through Eastern Europe via the Baltic Seaports to lesser effects, killed the Russian Grand Duke Simeon.

Selman Waksman

Discovered vaccine to the plague in 1947, Streptomycin

Consequences of the Plague: Cultural

The clergy were actually vary noble, compared to corruption that had been seen before in the church, caring for the sick when physicians fled. This lack of priests led to reform in the church and allowing the commoners to perform rituals on each other in the absence of a priest.

Art/literature had a morbid fascination w/ death.

Consequences of the Plague: Economic

There was overpopulation, and the Plague helped cut back, increasing productivity by "restoring a more efficient balance between labour, land, and capital."

High mortality rates in craftsmen resulted in high recruitment rates among guilds to preserve their size, especially to "new men" who did not have relatives in the guild.

High inflation due to fall in production and low supply. Wages also grew, after worker's demands for higher pay were successful, resulting in a high standard of living and an increase in per capita wealth.

Little laborers made slavery a valuable market, and prices soared.

Consequences of the Plague: Psychological

Sparked pessimism, as most disease = death back then. Everyone believed they were constantly at the mercy of death at any time, and in a painful death of agony. This resulted in psychological release in various ways such as orgies/extreme sensuality, asceticism and religious fervor.

Statute of Laborers

1351, an attempt by the English Parliament to freeze the wages of English workers at pre-1347 (Plague) levels.

Unsuccessful as it could not be enforced, and inflation kept rising

Flagellant

One who whips/physically punishes him/herself as penance for their/society's sins, believing the Black Death is a punishment by God.

Consequences of the Plague: Social

Funerals had been elaborate celebrations, mass death resulted in quickened mass graves w/ little celebration.

People used pilgrimages as excuses to escape, but port cities began quarantining all incoming ships to verify if it carried the Plague, copying Ragusa.

Quarantine meant 40 days isolation, derived from a venetian word.

Many universities opened due to death of intellectuals and priests, but usually were non-international, weakening international unity and prefacing the schism in the Catholic church.

Origins of the 100 Years' War

Isabella, daughter of Phillip the Fair, and her son, Edward III, come into power in England. In France, Charles IV, son of Phillip the Fair dies with no heir, and therefore the closest relative is Isabella and her son. The French pull an outdated 6th century Germanic law code out to avoid the humiliation and give the crown to Philip VI of Valois, Phillip the fair's nephew.

Treaty of Paris in 1259 said that the Eng. King and his successors would be vassals to France for the duchy of Aquitaine, and in 1329 Edward III paid homage to Phillip VI for Aquitaine. Phillip tried to confiscate the duchy, which Edward interpreted as a violation of the treaty, and argued that he should be leader of Paris due to him being the eldest descendant of Phillip the Fair. French barons became divided, some proclaiming to support Edward in an attempt to undermine the centralization of power being done by Phillip IV and keep power for themselves.

The war evolved into a civil war between barons who were fighting against this power centralization.

Public Opinion on the 100 Years War

The kings on both sides used the church and campaigns to inspire nationalism and pro war opinions in the public, saying there would be fortunes to be made and stressing the need to meet an attack. They were successful, with Edward III gaining support in the 1340's and 50's after the English developed a deep hatred towards all things French.

The rewards of war also enticed many to join the fight, from unemployed knights to criminals who were promised pardons to nobles who hoped to earn estates and take home some valuable pillages from France.

Early stages of the 100 Years War

Mainly fought on French soil, but France supported Scottish attacks on the British homeland, but it supported Edward III's propaganda, a tool used on both sides during the war to spark nationalism.

Crécy

A key battle in 1346 when England used longbowmen to destroy a French army of knights and crossbowmen because of the longbows rapid reload time that resulted in a storm of arrows upon the French.

It was also the first time artillery was used in the West, which caused panic among the French which allowed the English to charge in and butcher them. This was not very chivalric, and represented the end of chivalry and Knights in ancient Europe.

Agincourt

Another key British victory during the 100 Years War, won by Henry V in 1415 who managed to win against vastly superior numbers.

Joan of Arc

A French peasant girl who had voices of St. Michael, Catherine, and Margaret tell her to crown the dauphin (uncrowned King Charles VII) and expel the English from France. Surprisingly, she managed to convince Charles very quickly even though she was a girl dressing as a man, because they were hoping for a miracle to save the French and win the war for them. She pushed to fight for the liberation of Orléans from its besieged state, and after a swift victory in 1429, became a rallying figure for the French army.

Sadly, the Burgundians, England's allies, kidnapped her and sold her to the English, where she was charged for witchcraft as a political excuse.

In 1431 she was burned at the stake at Rouen for being a heretic because she had heard voices and was ignoring the clergy, but her trial was rehabilitated in 1456 and in 1920 she was finally canonized.

End of the 100 Year War

After Joan of Arc and her liberation of Orléans rallied the French, they began pushing out the British, and support for the invasion in England began to dwindle. It was turning into a bottomless pit that lives and money was being thrown into, and soon funding was cut by Parliament and many called for peace. The French finally ejected the English from Aquitaine in 1453.

Consequences of the 100 Year War: Negatives

In France, farmland and production dropped due to the slaughter of the French and the pillaging of their farmland. France had a reduced role in international trade and affairs. England's southern ports were the only places that experienced physical destruction, but the lack of knights who usually acted as sheriffs back home led to crime and violence in England. Taxes raised to support the war increased the price of wool above what the Flemish and Italians would buy, resulting in lowered exports between 1350 and 1450. England suffered a great net loss as much of the supposed plunder could not meet the 5 million pounds spend on the war.

Consequences of the 100 Year War: Positives

Parliament developed greatly during the war, and representative assemblies flourished in many European countries. Across Europe, deliberative practices developed that laid the foundations for the representative groups of modern liberal-democratic countries. Sadly these groups declined after the 1400's, but Parliament endured, becoming a powerful force in English politics.

Parliaments development in the post 100 Year War period

The "commons," or Knights and burgesses, realized they had mutual interests and control over much of the country's money. They used their power to increase Parliaments power and move towards true democracy, making a statute in 1341 that required all nonfeudal levies have parliamentary approval. Edward III's signing of the law acknowledged that the King of England could not tax w/o Parliament's consent.

In contrast, the French did not want a national assembly because of geographic and cultural differences. Also, the King feared a large meeting of nobles could threaten his power. The 100 Year War did promote Nationalism in both sides, bringing each country closer together in identity and unity.

Babylonian Captivity

From 1309 to 1376, popes lived in Avignon, SE France. Phillip the Fair pressured Pope Clement V to move there and Clement bowed down, and it was very damaging to the papacy. During this time, the popes in France lived in extravagance and luxury as they concentrated on bureaucratic matters over austere matters

Rome was terribly struck by this as their economy and prosperity was based around the papacy, which moved away.

Pope Gregory XI

In 1377 he returned the papacy to Rome, but soon died. Roman citizens demanded an Italian Pope, and pressure was put on the cardinals to elect an Italian, which they did not protest.

Bartolomeo Prignano(Urban VI) and the beginning of the Great Schism

Renamed Urban VI, he was the first Italian-elected Pope in Rome after the Babylonian Captivity. He tried to abolish simony, pluralism, absenteeism and clerical extravagance, points of criticism of the Church by the people of Europe.

Sadly, Urban went reforming in a bullheaded manner, launching attacks on specific cardinals and the Church before his own position as Pope had stabilized. The cardinals responded by claiming they had been threatened to elect Urban, and elected Robert of Geneva, cousin of Charles V the Pope. Renaming himself Clement VII, he moved to Avignon and the Great Schism began with 2 Popes.

Sidings of the Great Schism and its effects

France went with Avignon, as did Scotland (England's rival), Aragon, Castile, and Portugal. The emperor recognized Rome with England, and the Italian city states switched from Urban to Clement.

The schism truly weakened Christian faith in Europe, as the commoners were confused on the true pope, and the intellectuals knowing what violence and scandal would come if the schism lasted long.

Conciliarists

Believed that reform of the Church could be made through periodic assemblies, or councils, representing all of the Christian people.

Notable conciliarists include Pierre d'Ailly and Conrad of Gelnhausen, who argued that the Pope derived his power from the Christian people, and that the Papacy should share a balanced form of church government with a general council.

Marsiglio of Padua

Rector of the University of Paris, wrote in 1324 (50 yrs before Great Schism) arguing that the state was the great unifying power in society and that the church should be subordinate, also claiming that the Church had no inherent jurisdiction and should own no property. He also said that there should be a general council that held authority above the pope. He was excommunicated.

John Wyclif

Scholar + theologist, wrote that papal claims to power had no basis in the Scriptures and that the Scriptures should be the standard of Christ. belief and practice. He said true followers should read the bible themselves, and he had one of the first English translation bibles printed and circulated.

Because of his attacks at the roots of medieval church structure, hailed as precursor of the Reformation. His followers were called Lollards and he became very popular in the 1400's in the lower clergy/commoners. Lollard teaching allowed women to preach, so it was supported greatly by women.

Lollards

Wyclif's followers were called Lollards and he became very popular in the 1400's in the lower clergy/commoners. Lollard teaching allowed women to preach, so it was supported greatly by women.

End of the Schism

In response to calls for a council throughout Europe, the two colleges of Cardinals (in Rome and Avignon) summoned a council at Pisa in 1409, deposing both popes and electing a single, new pope. Sadly, neither the Avignon or Roman Pope would resign, creating a 3 Pope schism!'

Pressure by the German emperor Sigismund made a council meet at Constance from 1414-1418, which tried to end the schism, reform the church "in head and members," and wipe out heresy. They burned a Czech reformer Jan Hus at the stake, and deposed the Popes of Rome and Pisa, and isolated the Pope of Avignon. This allowed them to finally elect a Roman cardinal, Colonna, who became Martin V as the first pope after the schism

He proceeded to destroy the council, ending the schism but stopping the conciliar movement in Europe and protecting the authority of the papacy.

These events in the Church set the stage from reform efforts during the 16th century.

Marriage in the 14th Century

It served as a rite of passage, and while the Church emphasized that both parties should consent, usually the parents or land-inheriting son would arrange the marriage for children. It dictated the economic circumstances in which a family would live, what land the son would work, and who the daughter would care for (in-laws). Usually based on economic factors over love or attraction

The merchet was a fine paid to the lord for the marriage (as he was loosing a worker) and the banns were announcements of future marriages that had to be posted by the priest for 3 successive Sundays before marriage could happen.

The age to marry women in Italy was late teens, while it was commonly early-mid teens in England and Germany. Men married as late as 30, but commonly in their twenties across Europe.

There was prostitution in the Middle Ages for the men who had to wait to marry as late as 30, and it was socially accepted. Because of this, it became a social matter and women were given supervision and protection, with areas of the city being held off for them.

Divorce did not exist, but some marriages were made private/personally for sexual needs, and one party could claim it was untrue

Guilds in the Middle Ages

Craft guilds were exclusive, but were economically secure and could be good jobs where one could pride in creating advanced products. Women were usually excluded, as culture supported the patriarchal system that made women biologically and intellectually inferior.

As guilds became larger and yet more exclusive, with less openings for master craftsmen to work, frustration resulted in riots and strikes such as the ones that occurred in the Flemish towns, France, and England.

Recreation in the Middle Ages

Executions were popular, violence was glorified in an age of war; jousts, archery, and wrestling was popular activities while public punishment of criminals were town events.

Drinking was popular

Fur-Collar Crime

So called because of the nobles who committed it, wearing fur covered collars, fur collared crime was a form of "chivalry" after the war when knights and nobles had nothing to do. They would threaten for "protection payment" if peasants did not want their property destroyed. Richer targets were kidnapped or extorted.

Robin Hood's villains in the stories are fur-collar criminals, aristocrats who used corruption and money to get away with crime across England.

Peasant Revolts: Flanders

Peasants had been continually oppressed for centuries, and finally revolted against corruption and oppression in mass movements.

In the revolts in Flanders during the 1320's the peasants fighting against corruption worked with the low and middle-class workers who were fighting against privilege and the widening gap between the middle class and the aristocracy. They were crushed by the French armies in the late 20's, early 1330's, but managed to earn more political positions in government and their situations became better.

Peasant Revolts: France

1358, tired of taxation from the 100 years war which fell heavily on the peasants, a revolt called Jacquerie named after a mythical agricultural laborer, Jaques Bonhomme (good fellow) began. This, combined with the constant fur-collar attacks, and the fact they had had to pay ransom for their King after he had been taken by the British sparked the revolt. They blamed the nobility for the oppressive taxes put on them, and for their general misery. Even the middle class of artisans and merchants, and even the clergy, joined the revolts. After weeks of defense, the nobles joined together and mercilessly cut down innocent and revolting peasants alike. The rebellion went underground for the next couple decades

Peasant Revolts: England

1381: Peasants demanded higher wages because of the scarcity of labor, but the Statute of Laborers of 1351 said that these wages would not be paid and they would have to work for as much as before. It tried to freeze the wages and class mobility, but failed. As life improved for the peasantry in the late 14th century, their expectations outgrew what the upper classes were willing to give. The Fur Collared Criminals also bred hostility between the peasantry and the aristocracy, and John Ball preached of the discontent, helping to spark revolt. The final straw was a head tax on all males that was imposed in 1381 after widespread opposition in 1380. The revolts were similar to those in France with ransacking and pillaging, and the murder of nobles.

Mainly occurred in the populated south/east, but also happened across England.

The boy-king Richard II met the revolt leaders, made false promises, and then crushed the uprising ferociously. When the nobles tried to reinstate serfdom from the past, a century of freedom made it impossible to enforce, so the peasantry gained some rights. By 1550 rural serfdom was gone. Across Europe in the 1300's peasant revolts revealed a great discontent, and the socioeconomic problems of that time.

Racism

Race in the Middle Ages was based on language, color, and laws over blood/descent (skin color), which made it more variable, and people were able to "switch races." Escaping the Black Death, many Europeans migrated eastward, mixing together on the Eastern European frontier as different races. Legal pluralism - A person was tried based on laws from their own race, no matter their location, had separate, but just laws for different races.

In England, the Irish were considered unfree, and many crimes against them were not considered felonies, and they were not given many basic rights that the English had. There was an emphasis on their different descent when compared to the English.

One point of contention was the election of church positions to people who spoke different languages than that of the local population they preached for. These bishops were supposed to be role models you could confide in, but the language barrier served to anger the local people in the fact that their race did not win the position.

Racism evolved into discrimination based on blood and family heritage, and intermarriage was forbidden in many places.

Dalimil Chronical

A survey of Bohemian history, but full of anti-German hostility from the Czechs. One anti-German prince offered 100 silver marks to anyone who could get him 100 noses cut off from Germans.

Statute of Kilkenny

1366, states that "there were to be no marriages between those of immigrant and native stock" and made English inhabitants of Ireland have to do English things so they could be told apart.

Divine Comedy

Written by Dante Alighieri, it writes about biblical ideas and classical styles using Italian Vernacular. It is a trilogy of one hundred verses broken into 3 equal parts (33*3+1) that address Hell, Heaven, and Purgatory.

Canterbury Tales

Written by Geoffrey Chaucer, it is a collection of stories in rhymed narrative. It is about the stories told by 30 people on the way to the shrine of Saint Thomas Beckett at Canterbury. This work helps describe different classes and aspects of English social life at the time.

Grand Testament

Written by François Villon, a poet who was banished from Paris after killing a man in a street brawl. He joined the wandering thief bands after the 100 Years War, and wrote this work in thieves' jargon. It contains a string of bequests, with humor, emotional depth, and social rebellion. His celebration of the human condition was very modern.

Christine de Pisan

A woman born to a semi-wealthy family, she was educated on Greek, Latin, French, and Italian literature. After her father and husband died, she had to support her mother and 3 children with her pen. She wrote "Livre de la mutacion de fortune," a biography of king Charles V, and "Ditié," a celebration of Joan of Arc and her victory. "The City of Ladies" listed great women of history and their contributions, and "The Book of Three Virtues" provided practical advice on household management for all different women.

Education

During the late middle ages, more children were being sent to school, and more laymen were possessing books and becoming literate. By 1430 clerics were the minority in the English Exchequer, or the treasury of the English government, from their majority 30 years prior. Literacy became important in the working world, and even women were becoming literate and being sent to school on housekeeping and womanhood.