Democracy and participation

what did winston churchill say about democracy in 1947

"No one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time."

The word 'democracy' comes from the Greek word?

demos

demos meaning?

 'the people'

The word 'democracy' comes from the Greek word demos meaning 'the people', and kratia meaning?

'rule by',

so democracy has origins dating back to

around the fifth century BC

Athenian democracy was not exactly perfect, for example?

so has origins dating back to around the fifth century BC. Yet, Athenian democracy was not exactly perfect. Enslaved people, women, and foreign residents were all excluded from the political process. The term 'people' meant, in practice, a minority (10-20%) of Athens' inhabitants: all male and free.

 For much of human history, the term democracy has had negative connotations, being associated with?

mob rule and disorder

Only really in the twentieth century has democracy come to be seen as?

a desirable positive and a fundamental human right.

challenges of elections?

Turnout varies particularly according to age

Representation?

Most elected representatives belong to a political party and represent their party's views most of the time.

Legitimacy?

The first-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral system distorts party representation at Westminster. No recent UK government has won the support of over 50% of those who voted, let alone a majority of the entire electorate.

Participation?

There is a wide range of participation opportunities, some of which require far more commitment than others.

Accountability?

There are frequent complaints about how government and public bodies try to cover up their mistakes. There are also many allegations of cronyism and partisan favouritism in many areas of government.

Rule of Law

Many argue that politicians and other elected officials sometimes see themselves as above or exempt from the laws everyone else has to follow. Scandals including cash for questions, Partygate and honours as rewards for political donations/loyalty increase this perception.

Smooth Transition of Power

In general, elections and government handovers are calm and peaceful in the UK. The prolonged hiatus and debate in parliament over a Brexit deal was, however, viewed by many Leave supporters as an attempt to thwart the will of the people.

Education and Information

Many sources of news and information are biased and one-sided. In addition, social media such as X/Twitter and TikTok allows misleading/'fake news' to reach a wide audience, and influence voting and political perceptions. Election campaigns rely on highly simplified messages that at their worst can be very misleading.

Democracy in the UK primarily takes the form of _______ democracy, with the occasional element of ______ democracy. Some other countries, for example the ____, have a presidential democracy, which involves a directly elected leader who governs alongside a ___________ body, i.e., _______.

Democracy in the UK primarily takes the form of representative democracy, with the occasional element of direct democracy. Some other countries, for example the USA, have a presidential democracy, which involves a directly elected leader who governs alongside a representative body, i.e., Congress.

Advantages of Representative Democracy?

• Elected representatives (mps, counsellors) have the

• By being responsible for nearly all areas of policy and decision-making, they are able to

• Belonging to a political party enables 

• Representative government is more
  

• Elected representatives (mps, counsellors) have the knowledge/skill to make often difficult and complex decisions on behalf of voters.

• By being responsible for nearly all areas of policy and decision-making, they are able to take a broader view of issues and balance effectively competing claims and issues.

• Belonging to a political party enables voters to have a good idea of how representatives will act once in power.

• Representative government is more efficient than laying numerous decisions and laws directly before the people for approval or rejection.
  

Direct democracy entails what?

directly involving the people in policy choices as opposed to leaving it purely to elected officials

Exampled and info about direct democ?

Referendums are commonly associated with this type of democracy. Direct democracy in practice is rarely used in the UK, and then almost exclusively reserved for constitutional issues.

Examples of Direct Democracy in the UK:

• _____ - Northern Ireland: vote on whether it would remain part of the United Kingdom

• 1975 - _______________________

• _______ - Scotland and Wales: proposed introduction of devolution

• 1998 - London: _______________

• _______________ - vote on the Good Friday Agreement

• 2011 - whole of UK: _______________________________

• ___________ vote on whether more powers should be transferred to the Welsh Assembly

• 2014 - Scotland: _______________

• ___________________ EU referendum
  
  

• 
  
  

• 1973 - Northern Ireland: vote on whether it would remain part of the United Kingdom

• 1975 - whole of UK: vote on continued membership of the European Union

• 1979 and 1997 - Scotland and Wales: proposed introduction of devolution

• 1998 - London: referendum on whether there should be a directly elected mayor of London and the creation of a Greater London Authority

• 1998 - Northern Ireland: vote on the Good Friday Agreement

• 2011 - whole of UK: proposal to replace the FPTP electoral system with the alternative vote (AV)

• 2011 - Wales: vote on whether more powers should be transferred to the Welsh Assembly

• 2014 - Scotland: independence referendum

• 2016 - whole of UK: EU referendum
  
  

UK doesn’t use direct democracy much however switzerland does. _________ people there can challenge any piece of legislation within _____ days of adoption by parliament. citizens can draw up laws if ______________ people sign up in 18 months.

UK doesn’t use direct democracy much however switzerland does. 50000 people there can challenge any piece of legislation within 100 days of adoption by parliament. citizens can draw up laws if 100,000 people sign up in 18 months.

The Republic of Ireland also uses referendums extensively on ethical issues such as

abortion and same-sex marriage.

E-petitions in the UK enable members of the public to

 raise issues with the government.

epetitions run for?

10,000+ signatures can get you a?

100,000 get you a?

6 months

gov response

debate in parliament

Popular e-Petitions?

2019 - a50

2017 - trump

2023 - food pov

2020 - pal fam vis

• 2019: around 6 million signatures to revoke Article 50 and remain in the EU

• 2017: 1.86 million signatures to stop President Donald Trump from a state visit

• 2020: over 1.1 million signatures to end child food poverty

• 2023: just over 100,000 signatures for a Palestinian Family Visa Scheme
  

In 2021, an e-petition to ban the use of animal glue traps for pest control attracted over how many signatures?

40k

Glue traps were seen as what?

cruel and causing unnecessary suffering to animals. There had been several other e-petitions on the topic submitted in previous years.

 In 2022, the Glue Trap (Offences) Act was passed as a…

private members' bill with government support.

The case study of banning glue traps for animals is a ____ , if relatively _____, example of an e-petition indirectly _____ to achieve a change in policy. It is, however, much less ______ than many of the other e-petitions submitted.

This is a good, if relatively rare, example of an e-petition indirectly helping to achieve a change in policy. It is, however, much less controversial than many of the other e-petitions submitted.

Advantages of direct democracy pt 1

• It promotes political participation. Because

• It improves accountability. Because
  

• People can participate directly in the decision-making process

• Elected representatives or the government cannot ignore the wishes of the people.
  
  

Advantages of direct democracy pt 2

• It can sometimes provide a useful corrective when the MPs’ views are…

• It improves political education. People can be motivated to become politically well…

• out of step with the country at large, such as with Brexit.

• informed and research relevant material and points before arriving at a rational and considered decision.

Advantages of direct democracy pt 3

• It enhances legitimacy. This is because
  
  

• It works. This is because
  

• It is often considered to be a 'purer' form of democracy because
  

• Decisions have the direct authority and mandate of the people. This gives them greater legitimacy. When people vote in elections, they may not necessarily agree with all the policies in a party manifesto.

• Direct democracy, whether referendums or e-petitions, is popular with voters and engages them, e.g. turnout in the 2014 Scottish independence referendum was a record 84.6%. It also functions well in other countries, such as Switzerland.

• it allows and trusts the whole adult population to have a say and decide on issues directly instead of through representatives.
  

Disadvantages of direct democracy pt 1

• Populist outcomes can prevail. This is because

• Turnout is often low for referendums, for example

• People may vote for emotional or populist short-term reasons rather than taking a more considered and long-term view. Many sources of information are one-sided and often sensationalist in their approach.

• like that for the introduction of an AV in 2011, where the turnout was a meagre 42%. This reduces any notion of democratic legitimacy.

Disadvantages of direct democracy pt 2

• The majority of people may vote for something that undermines the rights of a minority group. This is called

• It is impractical. In a large and diverse country, greater use of referendums in particular would be....
  

tyranny of the majority

costly and time consuming. If the public were allowed to propose legislation, it could make some aspects of effective government impossible, e.g. voters could choose both to lower taxes and increase spending on public service

Unlike the USA, there has never been _____ or _______ exclusion of minority ethnic groups from being able to vote in the ___, along the lines of the infamous _____ _____ laws in the American ________. However, people from minority ethnic groups have been _________ and __________ under-represented in politics. It took until _________ for the first people of colour to be elected as MPs in a fully democratic UK (see page 31).

Unlike the USA, there has never been systematic or quasi-legal exclusion of minority ethnic groups from being able to vote in the UK, along the lines of the infamous Jim Crow laws in the American South. However, people from minority ethnic groups have been significantly and historically under-represented in politics. It took until 1987 for the first people of colour to be elected as MPs in a fully democratic UK (see page 31).

Pressure groups such as Operation ___ ____ and ____ ____ focus their efforts on ensuring minority ____ and _____ groups register and then turn out to ____ , alongside promoting racial _____ and political engagement more generally throughout the UK.

Pressure groups such as Operation Black Vote and Muslim Voice focus their efforts on ensuring minority ethnic and religious groups register and then turn out to vote, alongside promoting racial justice and political engagement more generally throughout the UK.

Scotland and Wales have given the vote to 16- and 17-year-olds for

local and assembly elections

16 and 17 year olds can already be…

• paying

• obtaining

• consenting to

• becoming a company

• joining the 
  
  

• paying income tax and National Insurance
  
  

• obtaining tax credits and welfare benefits in their own right
  
  

• consenting to sexual relationships and getting married
  
  

• becoming a company director
  
  

• joining the armed forces

it is only relatively recently that _____ has been considered as a _______ _____ ____. Until the twentieth century, the right to vote was regarded as a ______ to be earned primarily through ownership of _____ and _____, as well as being reserved exclusively for the ______ half of the population.

it is only relatively recently that suffrage has been considered as a fundamental human right. Until the twentieth century, the right to vote was regarded as a privilege to be earned primarily through ownership of land and property, as well as being reserved exclusively for the male half of the population.

Article 21 of the 1948 UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to….

participate in their government, directly or through freely chosen representatives, and that the people’s will must be expressed through periodic, genuine elections with universal, equal, and secret voting.

Q: What was the traditional UK position on prisoner voting rights?

A: Prisoners lost the right to vote while incarcerated but regained it after release (unlike some U.S. states).

Q: Who led the legal challenge against the UK’s blanket ban on prisoner voting?

A: John Hirst, a convicted prisoner, supported by groups like the Prison Reform Trust.

Q: What was the significance of Hirst v UK (2005)?

A: The European Court of Human Rights ruled that the UK’s blanket ban on prisoner voting violated Article 3 of the First Protocol of the ECHR.

Q: How did UK governments respond to the ruling?

A: They resisted implementation, delayed reforms, and faced strong public and political opposition.

Q: How did Prime Minister David Cameron describe the idea of giving prisoners the vote?

A: He said it made him "physically sick."

Q: What compromise was introduced in 2017?

A: Justice Secretary David Lidington allowed prisoners on temporary licence (around 100 at a time) to vote.

Q: How was the case finally resolved?

A: In 2018, the Council of Europe accepted the UK’s compromise and closed the case.

Should prisoners in the UK have the right to vote?

Yes part 1

• Voting is part of civic responsibility and removing it makes

• Voting is a fundamental right that cannot be

• There is no evidence that taking away the vote acts as an

• Removal of the vote makes a prisoner a

• The ECtHR has ruled against a blanket ban, so the UK government must

• The ECtHR accepted the small concession offered by
  
  

• Voting is part of civic responsibility and removing it makes rehabilitation harder.

• Voting is a fundamental right that cannot be removed.

• There is no evidence that taking away the vote acts as an effective deterrent.

• Removal of the vote makes a prisoner a non-person and alienates them further from society.

• The ECtHR has ruled against a blanket ban, so the UK government must honour its commitment to abide by the rule of law.

• The ECtHR accepted the small concession offered by the government and closed the case.

• ARGUMENTS AGAINST

• Those who commit serious crimes against society should lose (usually temporarily except in the case of lifers) the right to .

• Losing the vote serves as another deterrent against

• Prisoners are concentrated in certain constituencies that have

• Public opinion is strongly against such a

• It undermines parliamentary .

• The ECtHR ruling and its interpretation of the ECHR goes far beyond the original intent
  

• Those who commit serious crimes against society should lose (usually temporarily except in the case of lifers) the right to have a say in how that society is run. Rights come with responsibilities.
  
  

• Losing the vote serves as another deterrent against law-breaking.
  
  

• Prisoners are concentrated in certain constituencies that have large prisons yet are not normally permanent members of those communities so should not play a part in selecting MPs for such areas.
  
  

• Public opinion is strongly against such a change.
  
  

• It undermines parliamentary sovereignty.
  
  

The ECtHR ruling and its interpretation of the ECHR goes far beyond the original intent of its framers. It is a classic example of judicial overreach.

LIST SOME FORMS OF PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS

• voting in a range of elections including national, local, regional and referendums

• membership of a political party, attending meetings and actively campaigning

• standing as a candidate in elections

• joining a pressure group

• writing letters to MPs and councillors

• going on a march

• going on strike
  

Recent developments in political participation include (E-DEMOCRACY)

• signing e-petitions

• following, retweeting and liking political posts on social media such as X/Twitter, TikTok and Meta/Facebook

• organising and participating in protests such as those associated with Black Lives Matter via social media

• boycotting certain goods and businesses out of political and moral principle
  
  

social media and political participation

• Positive view:

• Criticism:

• Slacktivism:

• Trolling/abuse:

• Bots:

• Positive view: Social media = new political engagement, lively debate, exchange of views.

• Criticism: Some argue it leads to shallow engagement.

• Slacktivism: Clicking “like” seen as low-effort activism with little real commitment.

• Trolling/abuse: Aggressive online tone undermines participation quality.

• Bots: Automated accounts (esp. on X/Twitter) can distort political support by inflating activity.

It can be argued that participation and political engagement have been damaged by scandals such as MPs' ____ and ______ , and the long, drawn-out post-Brexit debates and potential deals that dogged Westminster politics between ___ and ____.

It can be argued that participation and political engagement have been damaged by scandals such as MPs' expenses and Partygate, and the long, drawn-out post-Brexit debates and potential deals that dogged Westminster politics between 2017 and 2020.

Overall, turnout in general elections is currently ____ than it has been _____ (see Figure 6.6). From 1945 to 1992, turnout was usually above ___% and reached ___% in 1950. In 2019 it fell to ____% across the UK. But this was still the second-highest turnout since ___. However, 2024 saw a further fall to ____, the lowest since 2001 and the greatest fall in turnout between elections since ____ and ____.

Overall, turnout in general elections is currently lower than it has been historically (see Figure 6.6). From 1945 to 1992, turnout was usually above 75% and reached 84% in 1950. In 2019 it fell to 67.3% across the UK. But this was still the second-highest turnout since 1997. However, 2024 saw a further fall to 59.7%, the lowest since 2001 and the greatest fall in turnout between elections since 1997 and 2001.

Elsewhere, recent turnout figures present a varied picture:

• 2024 mayoral election: 
  

• 2023 local elections:
  

• 2021 Scottish Parliament elections: 
  
  

• 2019 European elections:
  

• 2014 Scottish independence referendum:

• 2011 alternative vote (AV) referendum:
  

• 2024 mayoral election: 30 per cent (35 per cent 2021)
  
  

• 2023 local elections: 32 per cent (33 per cent 2019)
  
  

• 2021 Scottish Parliament elections: 64 per cent (56 per cent 2016)
  
  

• 2019 European elections: 37 per cent (34 per cent 2014)
  
  

• 2014 Scottish independence referendum: 85 per cent
  
  

2011 alternative vote (AV) referendum: 42 per cent

These figures suggest that turnout for many elections is ____, but they do not necessarily prove that turnout is falling _____. Turnout is noticeably higher where issues such as _____ _____ and Brexit excite _____ on both sides of the political ______.

These figures suggest that turnout for many elections is poor, but they do not necessarily prove that turnout is falling consistently. Turnout is noticeably higher where issues such as Scottish independence and Brexit excite passions on both sides of the political divide.

National factors FOR LOW TURNOUT?

• Leaders & parties: Charismatic leaders (e.g. Blair 1997) boost turnout; lack of appeal (e.g. 2024) depresses it.

• Issues: Clear, divisive issues (e.g. Brexit 2019) sustain turnout; absence of them (e.g. 2024) reduces it.

• Likely outcome: Predictable results discourage turnout (e.g. Labour dominance in 2001 & 2024).

Local factors FOR POOR TURNOUT

• Marginality: Marginal seats = higher turnout; safe seats = lower turnout.

• Local issues: Can raise or lower turnout (e.g. lower in 2024 in some Muslim-majority seats due to Gaza stance).

• Wealth & education: Affluent, educated areas = higher turnout; poorer areas = lower turnout, linked to disillusion and alienation.

• Example: 2024 Leeds South non-voter said they "don’t really know how it all works

• Labour:

• Conservative:

• Liberal Democrats:

• Reform UK:

• Green Party (England & Wales):

• SNP:

• Plaid Cymru:

• Labour: ~309,000 members (Feb 2025) Wikipedia

• Conservative: ~131,680 (Nov 2024) Wikipedia+1

• Liberal Democrats: ~90,000 Wikipedia

• Reform UK: ~237,000 (Aug 2025) Wikipedia

• Green Party (England & Wales): ~78,000 (Sept 2025) Wikipedia

• SNP: ~58,940 (Dec 2024) Wikipedia

• Plaid Cymru: ~10,000 W

• fewer than ___ of the electorate belong to a political party

• 2024 figures lower

• 1950s conservatives had 2.8, labour around 1.1 (mill), as well as several millions in labour affiliated trade unions

Partisan dealignment?

The process whereby individuals become less partisan and predictable in supporting a particular political party.

Party Membership Demographics

• Class:

• Age:

Party Membership Demographics

• Class:

  • Majority of members are ABC1 (higher social classes).

  • Liberal Democrats have the highest proportion: 85% ABC1.

• Age:

  • Average party member is 50+ years old.

  • Labour & Conservatives → mean age = 54.

  • 18–24-year-olds make up just 4–5% of memberships (Labour, Lib Dems, Conservatives).

One final factor cited as evidence for a participation crisis is the growing volatility of voters. In other words, they are far more likely to switch between parties, suggesting a wider disillusionment with parties and politicians. This phenomenon is known as?

partisan dealignment.

Partisan Dealignment & Volatility

• Causes?

• Evidence:?.

Partisan Dealignment & Volatility

• Causes:

• Decline of class-based voting.

• Voters more likely to choose based on policies, issues, or personalities rather than tribal loyalties.

• Evidence:

• New parties rising:

• UKIP & Brexit Party topped polls in last UK European elections.

• Greens won 240+ seats (2023 locals).

• independents gained 90+ councillors (2024).

• Labour + Conservative combined vote share:

• 82% (2017) → 75% (2019) → 57% (2024, record low).

Is there a participation crisis in UK politics, yes

• Turnout has been low in

• Membership of political parties has

• Partisan dealignment suggests that voters increasingly feel

• Disillusionment with politicians has grown since

• Political apathy is particularly marked among

• Many modern political participation methods amount to
  

• Turnout has been low in many recent elections, not least 2024.

• Membership of political parties has declined sharply in the past half century.

• Partisan dealignment suggests that voters increasingly feel no affiliation to a particular political party.

• Disillusionment with politicians has grown since the 2009 expenses scandal.

• Political apathy is particularly marked among 18-24-year-olds, who are less likely to vote or join a political party than older voters.

• Many modern political participation methods amount to 'slacktivism' and not true activism.

DEBATE: Is there a participation crisis in UK politics? no

• Some parties such as

• Election turnout is not

• There is a shift away from

• Citizens still

• Social movements and less structured

• There has been considerable growth in

• Internet-based movements can be

DEBATE: Is there a participation crisis in UK politics? no

• Some parties such as Reform UK and the Greens have seen a growth in membership recently.

• Election turnout is not consistently lower, and some votes, especially referendums, have seen very high turnouts.

• There is a shift away from more traditional modes of participation in favour of those focused more on social media such as e-petitions.

• Citizens still participate, just in different ways.

• Social movements and less structured campaign groups focusing on direct action, such as those expressing sympathy with Palestinians in the Israel-Gaza war and Black Lives Matter, can attract strong support and commitment, especially from younger voters.

• There has been considerable growth in membership of pressure groups, some of which have millions of members.

• Internet-based movements can be powerful and effective: the #MeToo campaign against sexual harassment led to much public debate