Conservatism

Conservatism

This comes from the idea to ‘conserve’. It focuses on maintaining the status quo, seeking to maintain order and tradition to guard against human imperfection. There is a strong belief in authority and any change must be gradual, minimal and carefully considered.

Pragmatism

Practical ideas and solutions

Tradition

Respect for beliefs and practices passed down from previous generations.

Human imperfection

The view that humans are selfish, emotional and irrational.

Organic state / society

Society has evolved naturally, and so the current way of doing things must be respected, state is a natural part of society.

Paternalism

Those in charge should be the most intelligent and the most powerful (top of the hierarchy) and should look after others like a father does to a son.

Libertarianism (neoliberalism only)

The idea of a minimal state, with the influence of liberalism and is mostly confined to an economic state (e.g - low taxes)

Traditional conservatism

Traditional conservatism gained popularity in the late 18th century with the enlightenment of the French revolution - which they viewed as dangerous and radical.

They sought to conserve religion by keeping it at the centre of life and maintaining power of the landowning aristocracy that helped maintain order.

They wanted to maintain hierarchies and seek to institute change through gradual reform whilst maintaining the role of the elite in society.

Thomas Hobbes

• Showed in his book ‘Leviathan’ (1651) advocacy for a strong state to maintain order.

• Viewed human life as ‘nasty, brutish and short’ if there was not a powerful state.

Edmund Burke

• Advocated for empiricism, using past experiences to make decisions and relying on tradition.

• Critical of the French Revolution and the chaos that followed after.

• He was more positive about the American Revolution as it conserved the English constitutional tradition.

  e.g - the rule of law, individual rights being more measured and gradual than the French Revolution.

Traditional conservative view of pragmatism

• Prioritise practical solutions based on experience and historic precedent, rather than radical or abstract ideological change.

• Believe change should only occur when necessary and gradual in order to avoid unintended consequences.

• Stability is more important than untested ideas that may disrupt social order.

  e.g - shown through their opposition to the French revolution

‎‎

Why do they hold this view?

They believe old ideas have worked before, so people should be careful about changing them too much as as rapid change can lead to disorder - possibly leading to a revolution.

‎‎

What policies would they support?

Small reforms, such as environmental principles, that do not disrupt people’s lives (cleaning rivers + local areas)

Traditional conservative view of tradition

• They see society as a product of generations of experience and wisdom.

• They support long-standing institutions, such as the monarchy, the church and the family, as they are vital in maintaining stability.

• They see the British monarchy as a unifying institution that provides continuity as governments change.

• Religious traditions, such as Christian moral teachings, are upheld as they promote social order, guidance to human behaviour and reinforcing shared values.

e.g - shown through their opposition to the French revolution

‎

Why do they hold this view?

They believe it promotes order and a shared identity in society.

‎

What policies would they oppose?

• Abortion

• Same-sex marriage

Traditional conservative view of human imperfection

• They have a pessimistic view of human nature, arguing that people are inherently flawed, selfish and driven by emotion rather than reason.

• Individuals require strong laws, social structures and authority figures to guide them as they are prone to making mistakes.

• They emphasise the importance of tradition, hierarchy and leadership to maintain social order.

‎

Why do they hold this view?

If there is not a strong state, human life is ‘nasty, brutish and short’ (Hobbes) and changes can be dangerous and radical.

Traditional conservatives view of organic society

• They see society as an organic, living entity that has evolved over time.

• They believe in a natural hierarchy, where different people have different roles and responsibilities and than inequality is inevitable and not necessarily bad as some people have different abilities suited for a certain role.

  e.g - the class system, where some conservatives believe that some people are suited for leadership, such as aristocrats or landowners, whilst other people fulfil supporting roles.

‎

Why do they hold this view?

Conservatives believe that everybody has their own roles from hierarchy, which would lead to a higher sense of order.

Traditional conservative view of paternalism

• They believe that those in positions of power, such as the aristocracy and ruling elite, have a duty to look after those who are less fortunate.

• This belief is rooted in noblesse oblige - the idea that the upper classes have an obligation to help those below them.

• For them, instead of the government helping the poor by forcing them to pay tax, it would be better if the rich gave to charities that directly help the poor.

‎

Why do they hold this view?

They believe that those under the state should submit to them to guarantee their protection in order to maintain order, hierarchy and prevent revolutions and revolts.

One-nation conservatism

One-nation conservatism comes from the idea that we are all ‘one-nation’ and that we should look after each other. Therefore, the elites should pay for things that help benefit society.

This was established as a result of rising inequality in the 1860s and to repair divisions between the rich and the poor in order to prevent a revolution and unite society.

PM Benjamin Disraeli (not a thinker)

• Proposed the Public Health Act 1875 to help win over the new working to middle-class vote - outlining the state’s responsibility for the health, sanitation and housing of its citizens.

  e.g - a new sewage system - one-nation conservatives believed that the rich should pay for this

Michael Oakeshott

• Viewed conservatism almost as a personality type - “it is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried”.

• Likened the government to a ship sailing on an open sea rather than a vehicle heading towards a specific ideological direction.

• He believed the rise of the government is not to “steer society towards an abstract dystopia” but to maintain stability and solve practical problems.

• He warned no government interference during time such as the Industrial revolution can lead to instability - though massive interference would be too disruptive and that balance is needed.

One-nation conservative view on pragmatism

• Believe that politics should be guided by practicality, rather than a rigid ideology.

• They accept that society will change, but that the change should be gradual and managed to prevent instability.

• They accept that the state must sometimes intervene in the economy or society.

  e.g - Public Health Act 1875

‎

Why do they hold this view?

They want to avoid rapid change and instability.

One-nation conservative view of tradition

• Believe that the ruling class has a duty to adapt institutions that reflect social changes. Institutions, such as the monarchy, Parliament and the church, must modernise to maintain their relevance.

  e.g - post-war conservatives were somewhat supportive of the welfare state, with Oakeshott seeing it as somewhat necessary.

One-nation conservative view of human imperfection

• Believe that human nature is flawed and that people need support - which is why the state should be involved to ensure that people’s basic needs are met despite their flaws.

• Oakeshott believed that if the state were to be involved, they should consider how humans are imperfect and selfish, and therefore may take advantage of the welfare state and not work - leading to their opposition for it.

‎

Why do they hold this view?

They argue that humans need a sense of order to manage their own imperfections so they do not pursue their own personal interests.

e.g - taking advantage of welfare reforms

They would be more willing to accommodate flaws as if otherwise, it would cause instability and they would not know better.

e.g - industrial revolution + abortion

One-nation conservative view of organic society

• Believe that society functions as a single body in which all classes have a role to play.

• Rejects extreme individualism.

• Argues if one part of society suffers, the whole nation is weakened.

  e.g - intervention in the workplace to make sure workers are protected from their employers - shown by Disraeli’s support for workers in the Employers and Workmen Act 1875

‎

Why do they hold this view?

They believe society should work together to prevent social divisions.

e.g - increasing workers rights

One-nation conservative view of paternalism

• Believe in noblesse oblige - the idea that those in positions of power have a duty to look after those who are less fortunate.

• This involves the government getting involved to ensure this happens effectively.

  e.g - Disraeli’s Artisans’ Dwelling Act 1875 - improved the conditions of housing for workers in urban areas using taxpayer’s money

Why do they hold this view?

It produces a more cohesive society with less chaos

The New Right

• After WW2, money was taken from the rich to help the poor through taxes. This led to high inflation. As a result, Thatcher cut the most money from taxes to combat this, leading to a small government.

• Whilst the New Right accepted many liberal ideas, such as individualism and free markets - having a laissez-faire approach to the economy, they rejected the new large welfare state, wanting to prevent the rise of socialism and the role of the state in the economy.

• They used privatisation to minimise the role of the state

  e.g - Thatcher implement the Right to Buy scheme - council house owners could now buy their house.

Neoliberalism

• The individual is the most important, they advocate for both economic and personal freedom - such as free speech, education and reproductive rights.

• They would like a reduced role for the state both economically and socially, with ensuring the freedom of individuals and focused on free markets, being less concerned with society.

• The minimal state can be described as libertarianism - the belief in a minimal state to ensure maximum freedom of the individual.

Neoliberal view of pragmatism

• They reject pragmatism in favour of ideological commitment to free markets.

• Economic principles should be based on those of a small government and low taxation, even if this causes social disruption.

Neoliberal view of tradition

• Believe that if traditional institutions hold back economic progress, they should be reformed or removed.

  e.g - state ownership of water companies should end, even if it disrupts old economic structures.

Neoliberal view of human imperfection

• Argues that humans are rational and capable of self-sufficiency if they are free from government control.

• Believes that the government and welfare traps people in dependency, rather than allowing them to flourish.

Neoliberal view of organic society

• Believe that society is a collection of individuals, not a structured whole.

• Traditional hierarchies in society should be dismantled in order to allow the most talented to rise.

Neoliberal view of paternalism

• Believe that the government should not provide economic assistance as people should be responsible for themselves.

Neoliberal view of libertarianism

• This is a set of beliefs revolved around limiting the powers of the state.

• Argues that the state should only exist to protect people from harm through enforcing laws and protecting their rights.

Ayn Rand

• Believes that all humans are rational, and they can be trusted to make the best decisions for themselves.

• Believed that through objectivism, they can create the best society without relying on tradition.

• Rejects traditional values if they interfere with individual success, arguing that self-interest drives progress.

• Argues that the welfare states creates a ‘morality of sacrifice’, which punishes the most productive individuals.

Robert Nozick

• Supported the rejection of pragmatism in Anarchy, State and Utopia in that the state should only exist to enforce contracts and to protect individual rights, not to interfere with the economy.

• States that the state should be like a night-watchman, having a minimal role and existing to ensure that laws are enforced and that people’s rights are protected.

• His minimal state theory suggests that society has no collective purpose, only individual freedom.

• Argues that wealth distribution is immoral, likening it to slavery.

Neoconservatism

• They advocate for economic freedom, but also the state should govern morality - known as anti-permissiveness. This is in opposition to the permissiveness that developed in the post-war era, opposing the new use of contraception and increase in abortion

• They would like a large, authoritarian state

• Approves of a strong military and ‘law and order’, with harsh punishments and heavy policing.

• Opposes the welfare state as it is seen as removing the need for the family unit, which is eroding society. They are heavily supportive of nuclear families, which they argue the welfare state attacks.

• Both neoliberals and neoconservatives agree on a small economic state, but not the social state.

Neoconservative view of pragmatism

• More pragmatic than neoliberals, seeking to restore authority and order.

• Believes in a strong state to uphold law and morality, even if it means restricting certain freedoms

  e.g - Thatcher and Reagan’s promotion of ‘tough on crime’ policies.

Neoconservative view of tradition

• Strong support for tradition, such as the family and national identity

• Believe that the government should uphold moral values to maintain social cohesion, shown through their opposition to multiculturalism and same-sex marriage.

Neoconservative view of human imperfection

• Strong belief in human imperfection.

• Believe that without strong discipline, people will become immoral and society will break down.

• High crime rates, drug abuse and family breakdowns are proof that liberalism has failed.

  e.g - shown by Reagans ‘War on Drugs’ and harsh policies in the 1980s

Neoconservative view of organic society

• Believes people must respect the hierarchy, duty and tradition to avoid social breakdown.

• People in society must be protected from having a moral decline.

• They support policies that help to maintain the nuclear family, such as tax breaks on married couples.

• Opposes mass immigration as it undermines national unity.

Neoconservative view of paternalism

• Does not believe in paternalism as it rejects the welfare state and most forms of economic assistance.

• Alternatively, they provide moral guidance through censorship and strong policing to maintain order.

  e.g - seen in banning of drugs and restricting LGBTQ+ rights