SAC1: A Response to a Case Study

Neural pathway

comprises one or more circuits of interconnected neurons that form a communication network.

Sympathetic NS

increasing the activity of most visceral muscles, organs and glands in times of vigorous activity, stress or threat.

Parasympathetic NS

decreasing the activity of most visceral muscles, organs and glands, and restoring body functioning to its normal state.

Reflex

A reflex is an unconscious, automatic involuntary reaction to a stimulus that occurs in the __same way__ each time.

Spinal Reflex

An unconscious, involuntary and automatically occurring response to certain stimuli occurring within the spinal cord without any involvement of the brain.

Neurotransmitters (synapse)

A chemical substance produced by a neuron that carries a message to other neurons or cells in muscles, organs or other tissue.

Synaptic plasticity

the ability of synaptic connections to change over time, including the formation, strengthening and weakening of neural connections, in response to activity or experience

Sprouting

ability of dendrites or axons to develop new extensions or branches

Rerouting

ability of a neuron that is connected to a damaged neuron to create an alternative synaptic connection with an undamaged neuron

Pruning

elimination of weak, ineffective or unused synapses (and therefore connections to other neurons)

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

the long-lasting and experience-dependent strengthening of synaptic connections that are regularly coactivated

Long-term depression (LTD)

long-lasting and experience-dependent weakening of synaptic connections between neurons that are not regularly co-activated

Stressors

are stimuli that causes or produces stress and challenges our ability to cope.

Stress

a state of physiological (‘biological’) and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope.

Internal stressors

originate within the individual.

External stressors

originate outside the individual from situations and events in the environment.

Eustress

A positive psychological response to a stressor as indicated by the presence of positive psychological states such as feeling excited, alert and motivated.

Distress

A negative psychological response to a stressor, as indicated by the presence of negative psychological states such as anger, anxiety, nervousness, irritability or tension.

Gut

All the organs and components of our digestive system that are together responsible for processing the food we eat.

Gut microbiota

Living organisms that live in our gastrointestinal tract and maintain gut health and functioning.

Gut microbiome

all of the genes of the microorganisms that live in the gut

Gut-brain axis (GBA)

The bi-directional relationship between the gut and brain

Enteric nervous system

A network of neurons embedded in the walls of the gastrointestinal system.

Probiotics

Foods such as yoghurt, kimchi, pickled vegetables, and miso are high probiotic foods that contain live microbiota.

Vagus nerve

The most important nerve in our parasympathetic nervous systems playing a role in our mood, immune response, digestion and heart rates.

Emotion-focused coping

strategies that target the emotional components of a stressor, deals indirectly with the stressor.

Problem-focused coping

strategies that directly target the stressor, aims to reduce in a practical way.

Coping

The process of dealing with stress.

Coping Strategy

a specific method, behavioural or psychological, used to manage or reduce the stress produced by a stressor.

Context-specific effectiveness

is when a coping strategy or method is said to be suitable (effective) for dealing with the stressful situation (context).

Coping flexibility

the ability to effectively modify or adjust one’s coping strategies according to the demands of different stressful situations.

High coping flexibility

adjust their coping strategies if a particular strategy they are using is proving to be ineffective.

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Low coping flexibility

consistently use the same type of coping strategies across different stressful situations, and persist in their use of the coping strategies they deploy, even in the face of ineffectiveness.

Central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

Brain

The intricate network of cells that continuously receives and analyses sensory information, responding by controlling all bodily actions and functions.

Spinal cord

A column of nerve fibres that extend from the base of the brain to lower back, encased in bones called the vertebrae.

Somatic nervous system

Involved in all skeletal muscle activity that enables us to participate in our relationship with the external environment.

Autonomic nervous system

Network of neurons that connect the CNS to all the body’s internal muscles and organs and to the body’s many glands. Autonomous - organs, glands and processes happen without conscious control

Conscious response

* A reaction that involves awareness. 
* Paid attention to stimulus and therefore know about it. 
* Voluntary, ‘intentional’ reaction. 
* Goal directed (purposeful) and you will be able to exercise some degree of control over it.

Unconscious response

* A reaction that does not involve awareness.
* Involuntary, unintentional, automatic and we cannot ordinarily control its occurrence. 
* Bodily responses regulated by the ANS - automatic 
* Reflexive responses (called autonomic reflexes)

Neurotransmission (lock-and-key process)

In this analogy, the key is the neurotransmitter. The key’s molecular structure determines whether it is the right shape and size to fit into the lock, represented by the postsynaptic neuron’s receptor sites.

Glutamate

Enhances information transmission by making postsynaptic neurons more likely to fire. The release of glutamate is strongly associated with enhanced learning and memory.

Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)

A type of inhibitory neurotransmitter that blocks or inhibits brain signals. It is largely associated with calming feelings of anxiety, stress or fear.

Dopamine

* Voluntary motor movement: enables smooth, coordinated muscle movement
* Reward-based learning: when someone is rewarded for a behaviour, dopamine produced in the ventral tegmental area is released, which is associated with feelings of pleasure. Examples of rewards include money, food, sex, and virtual prizes in an online game. 
* Motivation: stimulates a person to display rewarding behaviours to experience pleasure again. Associated with addiction (e.g. gambling, drugs) because these behaviours provide an intensely pleasurable reward, motivating the individual to repeat the behaviour

Serotonin

* Mood regulation and stabilisation: appropriate levels lead to positive and stable moods, whereas low levels are associated with mental disorders, including depression and anxiety disorders
* Regulating sleep-wake cycle: influences quality and quantity of sleep at night, and feelings of alertness and wakefulness during the day 
* Various other roles: depending on the receptor types it binds to in and the brain area it acts upon, serotonin also plays a role appetite, digestion, and arousal

Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

A presynaptic neuron transmits the signal toward a synapse, whereas a postsynaptic neuron transmits the signal away from the synapse

Neuromodulator

A chemical messenger that enhances signal transmission.

Neuromodulation

Changes synaptic efficacy

Psychobiological process

A process which has both biological and psychological components and consequences. For example, stress.

Fight-flight-freeze response

The fight response is your body's way of facing any perceived threat aggressively. Flight means your body urges you to run from danger. Freeze is your body's inability to move or act against a threat.

Physiological changes occurring in the body due to the F-F-F response

* Increased heart rate and blood pressure
* Redistribution of blood supply from the skin and intestines to the skeletal muscles
* Increased breathing rate
* Increased glucose secretion by the liver
* dilation of the pupils
* Suppression of non-essential functions eg. digestion.

Role of cortisol

Responsible for maintaining health and wellbeing of the body while under stress, it is also usually vital for functions such as immunity, digestion, mood, and growth.

Acute stress

Tends to produce a very high arousal level for a relatively short time. Eg. a deadline, a performance, traumatic event.

Chronic stress

A form of stress that endures for several months or longer. Eg. significant financial problems which persist for years, ongoing marital problems.

HPA axis

H - Hypothalamus

P - Pituitary gland

A - Adrenal glands

…Triggers the release of cortisol.

Stage 1: Alarm reaction (SHOCK)

Initially - body goes into a temporary state of shock*.*

* Ability to deal with the stressor falls below its normal level. 
* Physiologically, the body reacts as if it were injured.
* Blood pressure and body temperature drop.
* The ability to deal with the stressor is temporarily reduced. 

Stage 1: Alarm reaction (COUNTER SHOCK)

Then the body rebounds from this level with a reaction called counter shock. 

* Sympathetic nervous system is activated and the body’s resistance to the stressor increases. 
* Organism’s response is a fight–flight response - alert and prepares to deal with the stressor.
* Adrenaline, noradrenaline and then cortisol are released into the bloodstream.

Resistance stage

All unnecessary physiological processes are ‘shut down’ to enable resistance (e.g digestion, growth, menstruation, production of sperm + testosterone are all inhibited). At this stage we focus most of our energy on the stressor eg. completing Year 12 and ignoring other life commitments.  Resistance to other forms of stress (stressors) decreases.  

Exhaustion stage

If the stressor is not dealt with successfully during the resistance stage, and stress continues, the organism enters an exhaustion stage. Characterised by: extreme fatigue, high levels of anxiety and symptoms of depression etc.

GAS model strengths and limitations

Strengths:

* There is evidence of the relationship between stress and illness
* It highlights a predictable pattern that can be measured in individuals

Limitations:

* Research was not conducted on humans
* Does not account for individual differences and psychological factors.

Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

Proposes that stress involves a transaction between an individual and their external environment, and that a stress response depends upon the individual’s appraisal of the stressor and their ability to cope with it. Demands > resources = stress.

Primary appraisal

An individual’s assessment of the situation.

* Is it positive, benign, or stressful?
* If stressful, what kind of stress?
* Harm/loss = has happened
* Threat = could happen
* Challenge

Secondary appraisal

An individual’s assessment of the available resources to deal with demands.

* Internal resources = character, personality
* External resources = support networks, money, time

Reappraisal

An important step in this model, as the consideration of one’s resources can change their perception of a situation.

Approach coping strategies

Involve behaviours that attempt to decrease the stress by addressing or finding solutions to the problem. E.g. applying for jobs, commencing homework.

Avoidant coping strategies

Involve failing to engage or deal with the stress by protecting oneself from psychological distress. E.g. ignoring or denying the situation.

Self-efficacy

The belief in our own ability and that our actions can influence outcomes.

Resilience

Our ability to bounce back following adversity.