COGNITION-- AP PSYCH

information processing model

getting info in = encoding. retaining info = storage. getting info out = retrieval.

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event, often leading to distorted recollections or false memories

source monitoring error

memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source, causing confusion about the origin of the information

reality monitoring error

whether memories are based on real events or imagination

retroactive forgetting

new info impairs the retention of previously learned information

proactive forgetting

previously learned information impairs the retention of new information

Early vs. Late Selection

early selection filters out information before processing and late selection filtering after some processing (both theories true)

cognitive load

your focus on a task that is more vs. less demanding. determines early vs. late selection

priming

to retrieve a specific memory, you need to identify one of the strands that leads to it

multi-tasking

really switching attention back and forth, not simultaneous processing

state dependent memories

improved recall is attributed to being in the same emotional state/state of consciousness during encoding and later retrieval

mood congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

structural encoding

relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

phonemic encoding

emphasizes what a word sounds like (involves naming/saying things)

semantic encoding

emphasizes the meaning of verbal input— involves thinking about the objects and actions the words represent

self-referent encoding

involves deciding how/whether info is personally relevant

overlearning

refers to continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it

serial-position effect

occurs when subjects show better recall of items at the start/end of a list, rather than the middle

link method

involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together

method of loci

taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations

encoding specificity principle

value of a retrieval cue depends on how well you encode

short term memory (STM)

limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for 10-20 secs

working memory capacity (WMC)

refers to one’s ability to hold and manipulate info in conscious attention

long-term memory (LTM)

an unlimited capacity store that can hold info over length periods of time

flashbulb memories

unusually vivid/detailed memories of the circumstances in which one learned about momentous/newsworthy events

schema

organized cluster of knowledge about an object/event abstracted from previous experience with said object/event

semantic network

consists of nodes representing joined together by pathways linking relating concepts

prospective memory

involves remembering to perform actions in the future

retrospective memory

involves remembering events from the past or previously learned info

leveling

stories become shorter when stored

long-term potentiation (LTP)

long-lasting increase in neutral excitability in synapses along a specific neutral pathway

implicit memory

long-term memory where info is stored and used unconsciously

explicit memory

long-term memory involving conscious recollection of facts/events/personal experiences

reconstructed memory

process of recalling a past event by piecing together info from stored memory, often using personal knowledge which can lead to inaccuracies

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s model of memory stores

theory that memory is a 3 step process: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

problems of inducing structure

discover relations with words, numbers, symbols, and ideas

problems of arrangement

arrange parts to satisfy a solution

problems of transformation

carry out a series of transformations to reach a goal

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

mental set

exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past

insight/incubation effect

occurs when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after not thinking about it for a while

problem space

refers to the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver

an algorithm

a methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem

heuristic

guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or making decisions

well-defined vs. ill-defined

well-defined = clear path (know start, end goal, and all constraints)

ill-defined = no clear solution path (some info missing)

means-ends analysis

problem-solver analyzes the problem by viewing the end goal, and then tries to decrease distance between the current position/end goal (heuristic)

working forward

problem-solver starts at the beginning and tries to solve the problem from start —> finish (heuristic)

working backward

problem solver starts at the end, and tries working backwards from there (heuristic)

forming subgoals

breaking a problem into smaller problems to achieve end goal (heuristic)

analogies

take past problem solving experiences that are similar to solve a problem (heuristic)

change representation

change how problem is set up in order to solve it (heuristic)

Simons theory of bound rationality

people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus only on a few aspects of options → often resulting in irrational/sub-optimal decisions

risky decision making

involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty (ignore expected value → focus on subjective utility)

expected value

how much you could gain or what you could lose

subjective utility

what outcome is personally worth to an individual (vs. expected value, this wins)

availability heuristic

how you estimate the probability of an event based on the ease at which relevant examples come to mind

representativeness heuristic

determines the probability based on assumptions or past experience i.e. how similar to a typical prototype (schema/stereotype)

conjunction fallacy

occurs when people estimate the odds of 2 uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone

gambler’s fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently

confirmation bias

the tendency to only seek info that is likely to support one’s decisions/beliefs (while ignoring dis-conforming info)

framing

refers to how decisions/issues are posed or how choices are structured

additive strategy

make choices by rating attributes of choices and choosing the one with the most best ones

elimination by aspects

make choices by gradually eliminating unattractive attributes

belief perserverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

belief bias

tendency for people to evaluate the logic of an argument based on whether it aligns with pre-existing beliefs

convergent thinking

narrowing down a list of alternatives to converge on a single correct answer

divergent thinking

trying to expand the range of alternatives by generating many possible solutions