fleshed out sociology midterm set

weeks 1-7

What is sociology?

The attempt to understand social development, uncovering underlying patterns and tendencies that shape social behavior.

What are the key focus areas of sociology?

Connecting the past to the present using ideas and theories, explaining social change through concepts like industrialization and modernization.

What are some methodological issues in early sociology?

Reliance on conceptual contrasts and simplified models, creating myths about historical phenomena, and limited engagement with detailed realities of historical change.

What is the sociological imagination?

A mindset that connects personal troubles with public issues, showing how history and biography intersect in shaping people's lives.

What distinguishes personal troubles from public issues according to C. Wright Mills?

Personal troubles impact individuals and their close circles, while public issues affect significant portions of the population and require collective remedies.

Give an example of a personal trouble and its corresponding public issue.

Unemployment as a personal trouble is linked to economic collapse as a public issue.

What defines a social problem?

A social problem emerges when a group perceives a social situation as a threat to its values, impacting a substantial portion of the population and requiring collective efforts.

What role do values play in sociology?

Values represent individuals' concepts of good or bad and serve as benchmarks for setting objectives and assessing conduct.

What is empirical inquiry in sociological research?

The use of evidence from the world to test claims, involving posing research questions, gathering data, and analyzing it.

What are qualitative research methods?

Methods focused on understanding meanings and experiences, including in-depth interviews, ethnography, and content analysis.

What is ethnography?

An immersive research method involving in-person observation and interaction, where researchers actively participate in the setting.

What are quantitative research methods?

Methods that use mathematical tools to analyze numerical data, including surveys and computational sociology.

What are mixed methods in sociological research?

An approach that combines qualitative and quantitative methods for deeper insights.

What is biosocial research?

Research examining the relationship between social and biological variables, such as how discrimination affects health.

What are field experiments in sociology?

Tests of hypotheses in real-world settings, which can face challenges like participant behavior alteration and ethical concerns.

What is historical sociology?

The investigation of past events to understand societal changes, connecting biography and history.

What are the key ethical principles in human subjects research?

Informed consent and confidentiality, ensuring participants understand the study and protecting their personal information.

What is the significance of the 'Founding Fathers' in classical sociology?

They examined the transition from pre-modern to modern society and laid the groundwork for sociological theory.

What are social facts according to Emile Durkheim?

External, collective rules and patterns (laws, norms, rituals) that exist beyond individuals, studied as 'things' to explain social behavior.

What is the role of the division of labor in society?

It plays a main role in the transition from pre-modern to modern society and creates different forms of social solidarity.

What characterizes mechanical solidarity?

Social cohesion based on common values and beliefs, typical of traditional societies with limited division of labor.

What is organic solidarity?

Social bonds rooted in interdependence, created by specialized division of labor, characteristic of modern societies.

How does Durkheim view religion?

As inherently social, inseparable from society, and a reflection of social reality; he rejects the existence of the supernatural.

What are the sacred and profane in Durkheim's theory?

The sacred consists of collective representations set apart from everyday life, while the profane includes ordinary things.

What are the key elements of bureaucracy according to Max Weber?

Hierarchical structure, division of labor, written rules, impersonal relationships, and merit-based career advancement.

What is charismatic authority?

Authority based on the exceptional personal qualities of a leader, believed by followers to possess special abilities.

What is the bourgeoisie in Marxist theory?

The class that owns the means of production and controls economic resources, replacing the feudal aristocracy.

What drives class struggle according to Marx?

Conflict between classes, primarily between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (owners).

How does Marx view religion?

As an economic and political problem that provides false comfort and distracts from material conditions and class exploitation.

What are the origins of contemporary sociological theory?

Roots trace back to the 1930s, bridging classical and contemporary theory through figures like Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton.

What is individual agency in sociology?

The capacity of individuals to shape societal patterns through their choices, creativity, and actions.

What are social structures?

Institutions, norms, and systems that constrain and guide individual behavior, dictating what is possible or permissible.

What is the shared values perspective?

The view that common beliefs and traditions are essential for social cohesion and order.

What is the conflict perspective in sociology?

The idea that societal progress stems from competing interests and struggles, driven by marginalized groups challenging dominant norms.

What are the drivers of social change?

Globalization, climate change, and technological advancements that impact institutions and everyday life.

What key issues are associated with gender and sexuality in sociology?

Inequalities such as wage gaps, representation in leadership, and societal reinforcement of gender roles.

What are the three interconnected systems in Talcott Parsons' systems theory?

Cultural system (values and norms), personality system (individual motivations), and social system (interrelations between actors).

What is equilibrium in a social system?

Balance and stability within a social system, adjusting to environmental changes without altering its basic structure.

What are pattern variables in Parsons' theory?

Dichotomies describing how individuals in different cultures make choices, contrasting traditional and modern societies.

What is affectivity in traditional societies?

Emotional expression and connections that are prevalent in traditional societies.

What does performance (achievement) refer to in modern societies?

The emphasis on individual accomplishments and capabilities over ascribed status.

What is the significance of collective consciousness in mechanical solidarity?

It binds individuals together through shared beliefs and values, leading to social cohesion.

What is the role of legal codes in organic solidarity?

They are developed to protect society and restore conditions rather than to avenge wrongs.

What is the difference between affectivity and affective neutrality?

Affectivity involves emotional involvement and immediate gratification, while affective neutrality emphasizes emotional control and delayed gratification.

How does traditional society view collectivity compared to modern society?

Traditional society prioritizes group/community interests, whereas modern society emphasizes individual interests.

What is the distinction between particularistic and universalistic treatment in society?

Particularistic treatment is based on status or relationships, while universalistic treatment applies the same standards to everyone.

What does the quality vs. performance dichotomy signify?

Quality refers to interactions based on who a person is (e.g., family status), while performance focuses on what individuals have achieved.

What is the difference between diffuseness and specificity in social obligations?

Diffuseness involves general obligations extending beyond roles, while specificity pertains to obligations tied directly to a role or task.

What are the four basic functions of the AGIL scheme for system survival?

Adaptation (A), Goal Attainment (G), Integration (I), and Latency (L).

What does adaptation refer to in the AGIL scheme?

Adaptation refers to the ability of a system to adjust to its external environment and changes.

What is meant by goal attainment in the AGIL scheme?

Goal attainment involves having clear goals and working towards achieving them.

How does integration function within the AGIL scheme?

Integration ensures that various institutions work together harmoniously to maintain system cohesion.

What does latency refer to in the AGIL scheme?

Latency involves maintaining values and norms, as well as managing tensions within the system.

What is the core principle of twentieth-century functionalism regarding society?

It views society as an organism where elements are interdependent, similar to organs in a body.

What is social equilibrium in the context of functionalism?

Social equilibrium refers to the stability of society, which can be disrupted by dysfunctional practices.

What are the three main limitations of functionalism?

1. Overemphasizes stability while neglecting conflict. 2. Assumes institutions have only positive functions. 3. Ignores dysfunctions that may benefit one group at the expense of others.

What is critical theory and where did it originate?

Critical theory is a framework that analyzes and critiques social structures to uncover hidden power dynamics and injustices, with the goal of promoting social emancipation and change.

It originated in the 1930s at the Frankfurt School, emerging from Marxism and responding to social inequalities.

How does critical theory view modernity?

It questions the optimistic belief in progress through science and technology, doubting the progressive nature of modern developments.

What is false consciousness in the context of critical theory?

False consciousness refers to the inability of the working class to recognize their oppression, hindering collective action.

What central question do Adorno and Horkheimer explore in 'The Dialectic of Enlightenment'?

They question why modern society has produced new forms of oppression instead of achieving true human liberation.

What failure do Adorno and Horkheimer attribute to the Enlightenment?

They argue that instead of liberating humanity, the Enlightenment led to new forms of domination and barbarism.

What is the culture industry according to Adorno and Horkheimer?

The culture industry refers to commercialized entertainment that distracts individuals and prevents critical thinking.

What are the four types of stratification systems?

1. Slavery, 2. Caste systems, 3. Estate systems, 4. Social class systems.

What defines a caste system?

A caste system is a rigid stratification where social status is determined by birth and cannot be changed.

What characterizes estate systems?

Estate systems are based on land ownership and noble birth, with limited movement between estates.

How are social class systems defined?

Social class systems are based on economic status, wealth, and income, with social mobility theoretically possible but often difficult.

What is a significant barrier to social mobility for women of color?

Women of color face significant barriers that hinder their ability to move up the social class hierarchy.

What is the core argument of Structural Functionalism regarding social stratification?

Stratification is essential for the proper functioning of society and necessary for maintaining order and efficiency.

How does the division of labor relate to social stratification?

It allocates tasks based on talent, ensuring important roles are filled by qualified individuals and requires higher rewards to attract talent.

What are some functions of poverty according to Functionalists?

1. Poor perform society's 'dirty work'. 2. Poverty subsidizes affluent activities. 3. Creates employment for those serving/protecting society from the poor. 4. Establishes a market for inferior goods. 5. Upholds status of non-poor.

What is the core argument of Conflict Theory regarding social inequality?

Social inequality is a source of conflict and arises from the unequal distribution of resources, not a societal necessity.

How do the wealthy maintain their privilege according to Conflict Theory?

Wealthy and politically powerful individuals collaborate to influence decision-making and policy that benefits their interests.

What challenges does the middle class face in the United States?

Stagnating wages, job insecurity, increasing financial strain, and many families being one crisis away from financial instability.

What defines the upper class in the United States?

An exclusive group with the highest levels of status and prestige, including 'New Rich' (executives, entertainers) and 'Old Wealth' (families with long-standing privilege).

What are the characteristics of the working class?

Employed in low-wage jobs, vulnerable to economic downturns, typically lack higher education, and struggle with financial stability.

What defines minority groups?

Groups with distinct traits, limited power, and limited resources, including racial/ethnic groups, women, and marginalized age groups.

How is race defined sociologically?

As a socially defined category based on physical traits, which are often linked to behavior and psychology.

What distinguishes ethnicity from race?

Ethnicity is a cultural concept based on shared historical and cultural backgrounds, while race is defined by physical traits.

What is the argument regarding race as a social construct?

Race is more meaningful as a social/symbolic category shaped by social and historical factors rather than inherent genetic differences.

How have racial categories been historically used in the U.S.?

To maintain systems of social and economic power, justifying slavery and segregation.

What are the characteristics of the poor in society?

They face severe economic challenges, limited access to resources, and are often blamed for their circumstances.

What is the significance of social mobility in the context of social stratification?

Social mobility is difficult when social, economic, and cultural capital are passed down to offspring, reinforcing class distinctions.

What is the impact of cultural knowledge on class distinctions?

Cultural knowledge perpetuates class distinctions by fostering networks among the power elite and influencing socialization.

What role does the reward system play in social stratification?

It ensures that highly specialized roles receive significant rewards due to their scarcity and importance.

What is the relationship between poverty and employment in society?

Poverty creates jobs for those who serve or protect society from the poor, such as social workers and police.

How does the concept of race vary across different societies?

Racial identity can be fluid, shifting based on cultural and societal contexts, as seen in countries like Brazil and Ecuador.

What is the perception of working-class jobs in society?

They are often viewed as inferior or 'unskilled', contributing to the stigma surrounding the working class.

What is the definition of racism?

Ranking human groups based on perceived differences in social behavior, mental capacities, and physical traits, often labeling some as superior or inferior.

What is personal racism?

Individuals expressing racist attitudes or behaviors, which can range from overt actions like racial slurs to subtle discrimination.

What are stereotypes?

Oversimplified beliefs about a group based on race, ethnicity, or other traits, which can distort perceptions and reinforce racial hierarchies.

What is colorism?

Prejudice based on skin tone within an ethnic or racial group, where lighter-skinned individuals often enjoy social advantages.

What is the privilege of whiteness?

The benefits white individuals experience, such as racial transparency and navigating society without the burdens of racism.

What is prejudice?

Rigid and unfavorable attitudes toward members of a racial or ethnic group, often operating subconsciously.

What is discrimination?

Unfair treatment of individuals based on race, ethnicity, or other social characteristics, which can be overt or subtle.

What is quiet discrimination?

A subtle form of racism driven by discomfort rather than overt hostility, which can still contribute to racial inequality.

What are the four possible combinations of prejudice and discrimination?

1. Unprejudiced Non-Discriminator, 2. Prejudiced Discriminator, 3. Prejudiced Non-Discriminator, 4. Unprejudiced Discriminator.

What is the cultural ideology of racism?

A belief system that justifies and normalizes the domination of some groups over others, embedded in social norms and institutions.

How does language contribute to racism?

Seemingly neutral terms can serve as racial codes, subtly referring to minority groups and reinforcing racial inequalities.

What is institutional racism?

Racism embedded in the operation of social institutions, leading to systemic inequalities in various sectors.

What are the effects of housing segregation and discrimination?

Minority communities face discriminatory lending practices, live in resource-poor neighborhoods, and suffer from environmental hazards.