gender bias

universality

That conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time or culture. 

Universality and bias: 

- beliefs and values, influenced by the social and historical context within which they live, may be biased  

- bias in research process may be inevitable, despite psychologists’ claims about discovering ‘facts’ that are ‘objective’ and ‘value-free’ 

- bias also undermines psychology’s claim to universality 

gender bias

in terms of human behaviour, gender bias is treating an individual or group of people differently because of their gender 

AO3 - limitation of gender bias: biological vs social explanations

tendency to present gender differences as fixed and biologically determined, which can lead to alpha bias.

e.g. Maccoby and Jacklin concluded that girls have better verbal ability and boys better spatial ability, suggesting these traits are ‘hardwired’ before birth. but, later research by Joel et al. using brain scans found no significant sex differences in brain structure or function. This raises concerns that early findings may have been accepted cuz they reinforced existing gender stereotypes, rather than being objective truths.

While some research, like Ingalhalikar et al.’s study on brain connectivity, suggests there may be genuine biological differences, we must be cautious not to overstate their impact. This highlights how gender bias can lead to misleading conclusions and reinforces the importance of critically evaluating research claims.

AO3 - limitation of gender bias: sexism in research

gender bias promotes sexism in the research process. women remain underrepresented in uni departments, particularly in science.

although psychology’s undergraduate intake is mostly women, lecturers in psychology departments are more likely to be men (Murphy et al. 2014). this means that research is more likely to be conducted by men and this may disadvantage pps who are women. e.g. a male researcher may expect women to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson 1995) and such expectations are likely to mean that women underperform in research studies.

this means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender-biased. 

AO3 - limitation of gender bias: gender-biased research

research challenging gender biases may not be published.

Formanowicz et al. (2018) analysed more than 1000 articles relating to gender bias, published over 8 years. they found that research on gender bias is funded less often and is published by less prestigious journals. the consequence of this is that fewer scholars become aware of it or apply it within their own work.

the researchers argued that this still held true when gender bias was compared with other forms of bias, such as ethic bias, and when other factors were controlled, such as the gender of the author(s) and the methodology used.

this suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias. 

androcentrism

male-centred, when ‘normal behaviour’ is judged according to a male standard (meaning that female behaviour is often judged to be ‘abnormal’ or ‘deficient’ by comparison). 

alpha bias and beta bias are consequences of androcentrism.

over the years, psychology has presented a male-dominated version of the world. e.g. the American Psychological Association published a list of the 100 most influential psychologists of the 20^th century which only included six women. this suggests that psychology has traditionally been a subject produced by men, for men and about men – an androcentric perspective.  

women’s behaviour, if it has been considered, has been misunderstood, and at worst, pathologized – taken as a sign of illness. feminists have objected to the diagnostic category premenstrual syndrome. e.g. on the grounds that it medicalises women’s emotions, such as anger, by explaining these in hormonal terms. men’s anger, in contrast, is often seen as a rational response to external pressures (Brescoll and Uhlmann 2008). 

alpha bias

research that focuses on the differences between men and women, and thus tends to present a view that exaggerates these differences. 

Differences between men and women are typically presented and fixed and inevitable. more often than not these differences devalue women in relation to men.  

e.g. Freud’s (1905) theory of psychosexual development. during the phallic stage of development both boys and girls develop a desire for their opposite-gender parent. in a boy this creates a very strong castration anxiety (fear his farther will cut his penis off). the anxiety is resolved when the boy identifies with his father. but, a girl’s eventual identification with her mother is weaker, which means her superego is weaker (cuz it develops as a result of taking on the same-gender parent’s moral perspective). thus girls/women are morally inferior to boys/men. 

beta bias

research that focuses on similarities between men and women, and thus tends to present a view that ignores or minimises differences.

e.g. research on the fight of flight response. biological research has generally favoured using male animals cuz female behaviour is affected by regular hormonal changes due to ovulation. this simply ignores any possible differences. early research into fight or flight did just that – it assumed that both males and female respond to threatening situations with fight or flight. 

Taylor et al. (2000) claimed that this isn’t true and described the tend to befriend response. the ‘love’ hormone oxytocin is more plentiful in women (but present in smaller quantities in men). it seems that women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production. this reduces the fight or flight response and enhances a preference for ‘tend to befriend’ (an evolved response for looking after others). 

this illustrates how research that minimises gender differences may result in a misrepresentation of women’s behaviour. 

impact of alpha bias in Bowlby’s maternal deprivation

Bowlby’s research in the 1950s had a profound impact on women. His ideas led to an increase in ‘stay at home’ mothering and the belief that maternal love specifically crucial for a child’s development.