choaters 4,9, and 15

why do the earliest remains of harappan society remain inaccessible?

silt deposits and rising water table

why is there little knowledge of harappan society?

their writing has yet to be translated

what natural feature was a large aspect of harappan society?

the indus river

where is the indus river?

it turns through north india with sources at hindu kush and the himalayas

although the indus river had rich deposits, it was

less predictable than the nile

what was cultivated in the indus valley?

wheat, barley, and cotton

what developed on the indus river?

a complex society of dravidians

there was no evidence about \_______ in harappan society

political system

what were the 2 main cities in harappan society?

harappa and mohenjo-daro

what could you find in the 2 major harappan cities?

a fortified citadel, large granary, broad streets, marketplaces, temples, and public buildings

what is a citadel?

a strong fortress that sits on high ground, typically to protect or dominate a city

what was standardized in harappan society?

standardized weights, measures, architectural styles, and brick sizes

what was observed from the living styles of harappan society?

social distinctions

what did harappan religious beliefs emphasize?

fertility

what caused the decline of harappan society?

ecological degradation, subsistence crises, natural disasters like floods + earthquakes, and people started leaving

despite the fall of harappan society, what remained?

some harappan cultural traditions

when did harappan society decline?

from 1900 b.c.e. onward

what economy did the early aryans heavily depend on?

a pastoral economy

what did the aryans have as far as writing?

they had no writing system, but had orally transmitted works called the vedas

what were the vedas?

veda is a collection of poems or hymns composed in archaic sanskrit by indo-european-speaking peoples who lived in northwest india during the 2nd millennium bce. the hymns formed a liturgical body that in part grew up around the soma ritual and sacrifice and were recited or chanted during rituals.

what was the sacred language of the aryans?

sacred language: sanskrit, daily language: prakit

when was the vedic age?

1500-500 b.c.e.

what was the vedic age?

a boisterous (energetic, rowdy) period, they were many conflicts with indigenous peoples

what did the aryans call the indigenous peoples?

dasas--"enemies" or "subject people"

who was the aryans' war god and military hero?

indra

who did the aryan chiefdoms fight ferociously with?

they fought among themselves

who were chiefdoms ruled by?

a leader known as a raja, or king

where did the aryans migrate to in india?

first punjab and by 500 b.c.e. northern deccan

what tools did the aryans use, and what did they use them for?

iron tools, used to develop agriculture

how were the aryans organized politically?

they lost their tribal organization and instead established regional kingdoms

what does caste mean?

hereditary, unchangeable social classes

what does the sanskrit word varna mean?

"color," refers to social classes

how many varnas were there and when were they recognized ?

four main varnas, recognized after 1000 b.c.e

what were the 4 main varnas?

brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants), shudras (landless peasants and serfs)

what category was later added to the 4 main varnas?

the category of the untouchables

what was the subcaste, or jati?

represented a more elaborate scheme of social classification; developed after the sixth century b.c.e.

what determined one's subcaste, or jati?

their occupation

what did the elaborate rules of jati life affect?

eating, communication, and behavior

in a caste system, social mobility was \____ and done by who?

difficult but still possible, and usually the result of a group rather than an individual effort

could foreign peoples fine a place in the society of the castes?

yes, they could

regarding men and women, how was aryan society structured?

it was a patriarchal and patrilineal society

who created the lawbook of manu and when?

it was prepared by an anonymous sage, first century b.c.e.

what is the lawbook of manu?

a lawbook that dealt with moral behavior and social relationships, advised men to treat women with honor and respect, and subjected women to the control and guidance of men

what were women's duties according to the lawbook of manu?

to bear children and maintain the household

what was sati?

a social custom in which widow throws self on funeral pyre

who was the aryan war god?

indra

what was the aryan god varuna known for?

ethical concern and cosmic order

what did the aryan religion have gods for?

gods of the sun, the sky, the moon, fire, health, disease, war, ethics

what was more important than ethics in aryan religion?

ritual sacrifices

why did the aryans perform ritual sacrifices?

for rewards from the divine power

what kinds of rituals did the aryans perform?

sacrifices, chants, soma

what was the soma ritual?

soma, in ancient india, was an unidentified plant the juice of which was a fundamental offering of the vedic sacrifices. the stalks of the plant were pressed between stones, and the juice was filtered through sheep's wool and then mixed with water and milk

what year did the aryans go under a spiritual shift?

after about 800 b.c.e.

what happened during the aryans' shift of spirituality?

thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits, dravidian notions of transmigration and reincarnation were adapted

when were dravidian notions of transmigration and reincarnation adapted?

during the aryans' shift of spirituality

when did thoughtful individuals retreat to forests as hermits?

during the aryans' shift of spirituality

what were the the upanishads and when were they made?

works of religious teachings, as well as spiritual and intellectual contemplations (800-400 b.c.e.)

what were the aryan and dravidian religious forums?

dialogues between disciples and sages

what was the brahman?

the universal soul

what was the highest goal in aryan and dravidian culture?

to escape reincarnation and join with brahman

what was samsara?

the idea that an individual soul was born many times

what is karma?

the specific incarnations that a soul experienced

what is moksha?

permanent liberation from physical incarnation

what did samsara and karma reinforce?

caste and social hierarchy

what did the upanishads teach?

they taught people to observe high ethical standards: discourage greed, envy, vice, respect for all living things, and a vegetarian diet

what filled the power vacuum left by the withdrawal of alexander of macedon?

the magadha kingdom

what did the magadha kingdom do?

they filled power vacuum left by withdrawal of alexander of macedon

when did chandragupta maurya begin conquest?

in the 320s b.c.e.

who founded the maurya dynasty?

chandragupta maurya

where was the maurya dynasty?

from bactria to ganges

what was kautala's advice manual called and what did it do?

arthashastra, outlined administrative methods

what was arthashastra?

kautala's advice manual, which outlined administrative methods

who was ashoka maurya and when did he rule?

an emperor of the mauryan dynasty who ruled during the peak of the empire

who did ashoka maurya conquer?

the kingdom of kalinga

what style of bureaucracy did ashoka maurya have?

a tightly organized bureaucracy

what was the name of the capital ashoka maurya established?

pataliputra

where were mauryan policies written?

on rocks or pillars

what caused the decline of the mauryan empire?

the death of ashoka maurya, which caused financial problems

who ruled in northwest india for two centuries?

greek-speaking bactrians

who revived empire in india?

the guptas

who were the kushans?

nomads from central asia

when was the peak of the kushans?

during the reign of emperor kashika, 78-103 c.e.

who had a crucial role in the silk road trading network?

the kushans

what did the kushans have a crucial role in?

the silk road trading network

who founded the gupta dynasty?

chandra gupta

compared to the maurya, the guptas were

smaller and more decentralized

what weakened the gupta empire?

the invasion of white huns

after the 5th century ce, the gupta dynasty continued in

name only

what dominated political life in classical india?

large regional kingdoms

when did towns dot the classical indian countryside?

after 600 b.c.e.

what did classical indian towns provide?

manufactured products and luxury goods

what did classical indian towns bring the start of?

active marketplaces, especially along ganges

who did classical indian towns trade with?

persia, china, indian ocean basin, indonesia, southeast asia, mediterranean basin

as far as gender relations in classical india, there were

patriarchal families, female subordination, and child marriage

what caused the appearance of the social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants to appear in classical india?

trade and commerce

what did the social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants function as?

sub castes or jati

which levels of the caste system saw unprecedented wealth?

vaishyas and shudras

why did the old beliefs and values of early aryan society become increasingly irrelevant?

due to the development of the caste system

who founded the jain religion in 5th century b.c.e.?

vardhamana mahavira (jina)

what were the jainist doctrine and ethics inspired by?

the upanishads