Psychology Research Methods & Biases

Hindsight Bias

The tendency of people to believe they could've predicted an event after it already happened.

Confirmation Bias

The human tendency to recall information that matches what we already believe while ignoring facts that prove us wrong.

Overconfidence

When someone is too sure their answer or judgment is correct, even when they may be wrong.

Perceiving Order

A cognitive tendency where people naturally look for and find meaningful patterns inside completely random data.

Theory

Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behavior and events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction.

Falsifiable

The principle that states that a research hypothesis must have the ability to be disproven.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Generalization

The extent to which findings from a specific study can be applied to other people, settings, times, or situations.

Replication

The ability to replicate an experiment with new participants to see if original findings occur again.

Peer Review

Evaluation of scientific papers by other experts in the same field before publication to ensure quality.

Population

The entire group of individuals participating in a study.

Sample

A smaller subset of participants from a population.

Sampling Bias

Occurs when some members of a target population are systematically more likely to be chosen than others.

Representative Sample

A small group that accurately mirrors the key characteristics and demographics of a larger population.

Random Sampling

A subset of individuals chosen from a larger target population entirely by chance.

Convenience Sampling

Picking participants based on who is available to the researcher.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group.

Non-Experimental Research

Research where the investigator measures variables as they naturally occur without manipulating conditions.

Experimental Research

A study method that actively manipulates an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable.

Correlation Study

A research method that examines the relationship between two variables without manipulating either.

Independent Variable

The variable that the researcher manipulates in an experiment to test its effect.

Self-Report Bias

The tendency for people to give inaccurate or distorted answers when reporting their own thoughts or behaviors.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to respond in a way that makes one look more socially acceptable rather than giving true responses.

Case Study

Research of a single individual or group of people.

Placebo Effect

When a group of people claims an event occurred but it never did.

Confederates

An actor who pretends to be a participant while secretly working for the researcher.

Single-Masked Study

A study where only the participants do not know what control or experimental group they are in.

Debriefing

Post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to participants.

Protect From Harm

An ethical guideline requiring researchers to keep participants safe from physical, mental, or emotional damage.

Minimal Deception

Minor, non-harmful ways of misleading participants.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research involving human or animal subjects to ensure ethical standards.

Confidentiality

Rules limiting how providers can share a patient's personal and medical information without permission.

Anonymity

When a person's identity is completely hidden and unlinked from their data or responses.

Experimenter Bias

A researcher's expectations or beliefs influencing the results or participants' behavior.

Generalizability

The extent to which results can be applied to a larger population beyond the study participants.

Dependent Variable

The result of the change of the independent variable.

Double Blind Study

A study where neither the researcher nor the participants know who is in the control or experimental group.

Informed Assent/Consent

Research participants must be told enough to choose whether they want to participate.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or independent variable being tested.

Meta-Analysis

A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.

Confounding Variable

Other items that could affect the outcome of the experiment and change the data.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the manipulated variable.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists.

Likert Scale

An ordered rating system used in surveys to measure people's attitudes, opinions, and perceptions.