Final Study Guide

What is poor inter-rater reliability?

When multiple judges assess academic writing samples and provide significantly different ratings for the same piece, it reflects inconsistent and unreliable judgments.

What is an example of poor inter-rater reliability?

For example, diagnosing schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or bipolar disorder with psychotic features can reveal poor inter-rater reliability due to the overlapping symptoms of these conditions, which may lead to different diagnoses by various clinicians

Another example of poor inter-rater reliability?

Similarly, in a clinical setting, if two psychiatrists examine the same patient and reach very different diagnoses based on the same symptoms, this also indicates low inter-rater reliability. When two clinicians apply the same diagnostic criteria but arrive at different diagnoses for the same patient, it highlights poor inter-rater reliability.

What is an example of heterogeneity in mental disorders?

individuals diagnosed with the same disorder, like depression or schizophrenia, can exhibit very different symptom patterns, etiologies (root causes), and even brain structures related to their disorder

When questionnaire items are highly correlated (i.e.,  “I am so outgoing”, “I am the life of the party”, “I love learning about people”) it suggests…

high internal consistency, indicating that the items are measuring the same underlying construct, such as extraversion.

The lexical hypothesis asserts…

all important personality traits are encoded in natural language. It suggests that the most significant and universal traits are those that have become part of everyday vocabulary.

A limitation of HiTOP is…

lacks clear boundaries between disorders, making it difficult to determine where one disorder ends and another begins, which can complicate diagnosis and treatment.

What was a consequence of the deinstitutionalization movement?

A large number of individuals with severe mental illness were released from psychiatric hospitals without adequate community support, leading to homelessness and increased incarceration.

Describe an interaction effect

Stress-Vulnerability Model also serves as an example of an interaction effect: stress may only lead to psychosis when combined with an underlying vulnerability. For example, the effect of alcohol on behavior might be stronger in individuals with high social anxiety than in those with low social anxiety.

Describe an additive effect.

Stress-Vulnerability Model, where the combination of vulnerability (genetics, brain abnormalities) and stress (life events) increases the likelihood of developing psychosis. For example, high stress and lack of sleep both increase anxiety levels without

Write about and explain one perspective in psychopathology (Options: CBT, Object-Relations, Jungian Analytical Psychology, Freudian Psychodynamic Psychology, Biological perspective, etc.)

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a structured, goal-oriented approach that links thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. It helps individuals recognize and challenge negative thinking patterns to reduce distress and adopt healthier behaviors—for example, replacing distorted thoughts in depression with more balanced ones.

Describe the adaptive value of anxiety.

Anxiety has adaptive value because it enhances learning and performance when it is mild, preparing individuals to anticipate and manage future threats. However, chronic or excessive anxiety becomes maladaptive and may lead to anxiety disorders. (triggers a fight-or-flight response,)

Describe thought-action fusion in OCD

as the belief that having a thought is morally equivalent to acting on it or that it increases the likelihood of it happening. This is exemplified by a mother who believes that thinking about harming her infant makes it more likely to occur.

Describe learned helplessness and how it relates to depression?

Learned helplessness, as described by Seligman, occurs when a person is repeatedly exposed to uncontrollable negative events and begins to feel they have no control over outcomes. This sense of helplessness can lead to passivity and is closely linked to depression, as individuals may develop feelings of hopelessness and low motivation.

Bipolar I:

Characterized by at least one full manic episode.

Bipolar II:

Characterized by hypomanic episodes (less severe than full mania) and at least one major depressive episode.

Describe Beck’s Cognitive Model of Depression

The model is detailed with a focus on the negative cognitive triad: negative views about the self, the world, and the future. Dysfunctional beliefs maintain these thoughts.

In OCD, what is an obsession?

 are described as persistent, distressing, and intrusive thoughts (e.g., contamination fears, fears of harming others).

In OCD, what is a compulsion?

are repetitive behaviors (e.g., hand washing, checking) or mental acts (e.g., counting) aimed at reducing distress caused by obsessions.

How does pain differ from somatoform?

Pain is a direct experience of physical suffering, while Somatoform disorders involve the experience of physical symptoms (including pain) that are not fully explained by a physical cause. For instance, a person with fibromyalgia might experience pain that is not adequately managed by medical intervention and spends excessive time and energy focused on that pain.

What is another example of heterogeneity in mental disorders?

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a clear example of heterogeneity in mental disorders because it can present differently across individuals. While some experience weight loss and insomnia, others may face weight gain and excessive sleep. Causes also vary, ranging from traumatic events to genetic predispositions, and treatment responses differ—one person may benefit from therapy, another from medication, and some from a combination of both.