Geo Case Studies Paper 2

The four main economic sectors

Primary Sector

• Involves extraction of natural resources.

• Examples: farming, fishing, mining, forestry.

• Common in less developed countries or rural areas.

Secondary Sector

• Involves manufacturing and processing raw materials.

• Examples: car production, food processing, construction.

• Declines as countries develop and automate.

Tertiary Sector

• Provides services to individuals or businesses.

• Examples: teachers, doctors, retail, banking.

• Grows in more developed economies.

Quaternary Sector

• Involves research, information, and high-tech development.

• Examples: software development, scientific research.

• Linked to innovation and knowledge-based economies.

Types of aid (5)

• Voluntary Aid: From charities/NGOs; small-scale, community-focused.

• Bilateral Aid: Government to government; may be tied; large projects.

• Multilateral Aid: Through international bodies (e.g. UN, World Bank); pooled and redistributed.

• Short-Term Aid: Emergency relief (e.g. food, water, shelter).

• Long-Term Aid: Supports development (e.g. education, healthcare).

Rio de Janeiro: Location

It is a major city located in the south-east of Brazil, on Brazil's Atlantic coast.

It has grown up around a large natural bay called Guanabara Bay.

Rio de Janeiro: Importance? R,N,I (2 each)

• Regional Importance:

  • Transport hub for the Southeast region: five ports and three airports

  • Largest urban centre in Southeastern Brazil (the primary economic and service hub): Metropolitan population ≈ 12 million

• National Importance:

  • Cultural capital of Brazil: > 50 museums

  • Brazil's second most important industrial centre: 5% of Brazil's GDP.

• International Importance:

  • Hosted global events (2016 Olympics, 2014 Football World Cup)

  • UNESCO World Heritage Site

Rio de Janeiro: Reason for growth? (3)

Rio has developed rapidly in the last 50 years to become a major industrial,

administrative, commercial and tourist centre. These economic activities

have attracted many migrants.

• Natural Increase

  • High birth rate due to youthful migrant population.

  • Improved healthcare lowers death rate.

• Rural–Urban Migration (Internal)

  • Push factors: Poverty, lack of services, few job opportunities in areas like the Amazon Basin.

  • Pull factors: Better jobs, education, healthcare, and lifestyle in Rio.

• International Migration

  • From neighbouring South American countries (e.g. Argentina, Bolivia) seeking work.

  • From Portugal: shared language, historic colonial ties, and cultural familiarity reduce migration barriers.

Rio de Janeiro: SE opportunities due to urban growth (2 + 2)

• Social:

  • Health care: 6 hospitals means easier access to health services.

  • Water: largest water treatment works in the world - people in Rio have better access to clean water.

• Economic

  • Education: 90% of children aged ten are literate - more schools than in the countryside.

  • 6% of all employment in Brazil is in Rio - rapid economic development attracts large companies creates many job opportunities

Rio de Janeiro: 3 socio-economic challenges and solutions due to urban growth

Education & Employment:

• Challenge: Despite 90% literacy at age 10, 50% of children drop out of education after age 14.

• Challenge: Unemployment rates show vast disparity, e.g., an estimated 37% in Complexo do Alemão versus 2% in Barra da Tijuca.

• Solution: A private university was built in the Rocinha favela, and grants given to families so they can afford to keep their children in school.

• Solution: The non profit "Schools of Tomorrow" programme aims to improve education and job prospects, particularly for youth in poorer areas - reducing unemployment disparities.

Water & Energy Resources:

• Challenge: 12% of Rio's population lacked access to running water.

• Challenge: An estimated 37% of water was lost through leaky pipes and illegal access.

• Challenge: The city experienced frequent electricity blackouts due to shortages, worsened by population growth.

• Solution: Building 7 new water treatment plants and laying over 300km of new pipes helped increase mains water access to 95% of the population by 2014.

• Solution: Developing the Simplicio hydro-electric complex increased Rio's electricity supply by 30%.

Crime:

• Challenge: High rates of crime were prevalent, with powerful gangs controlling drug trafficking in many favelas.

• Solution: Pacifying Police Units (UPPs) were introduced in 2013, taking control of crime-dominated areas (like Complexo do Alemão) and 30 smaller favelas to reclaim them from drug dealers.

Rio de Janeiro: 3 environmental challenges and solutions due to urban growth

1. Air Pollution & Traffic Congestion:

   • Challenge: Air pollution causes an estimated 5,000 deaths annually, worsened by traffic congestion (most congested city in South America) with a 40% increase in cars in the last decade.

   • Solution: Expanding the metro system (under Guanabara Bay), introducing new toll roads to the city centre, to reduce road congestion and improve air quality.

2. Water Pollution:

   • Challenge: Guanabara Bay is highly polluted, leading to a 90% decline in commercial fishing over 20 years, with over 200 tonnes of raw sewage and 50 tonnes of industrial waste entering daily.

   • Solution: Building 12 new sewage works since 2004 (cost US$68 million) and installing 5km of new sewage pipes around badly polluted areas.

3. Land Pollution (Waste):

   • Challenge: Many favelas have poor access for waste collection, leading to dumped waste that pollutes water systems and causes diseases.

   • Solution: A power plant (near Rio university) using methane gas from rotting rubbish consumes 30 tonnes of rubbish daily to produce electricity for 1,000 homes.

Rio FBP: Challenge

The project aimed to address the poor living conditions and lack of essential services in favelas in Rio de Janeiro.

Rio FBP: Solution (4 - SHET)

Implemented as a site and service scheme, providing land and services for residents. Specific improvements in Complexo do Alemão include:

🚡 Transport

Improvements: Paved roads, cable car system (1 free return/day)
So what?: Better access to the city improves job opportunities and integration into the formal economy.

🏥 Health & Infrastructure

Improvements: Clean water, drainage, new health, education, and leisure facilities
So what?: Boosts quality of life and reduces disease, helping break the cycle of poverty.

🔒 Safety

Improvements: Hillside stabilisation/relocation, Pacifying Police Unit (UPP)
So what?: Reduces risk of landslides and crime, making the area safer for residents and investment.

💰 Economic

Improvements: Access to credit and 100% mortgages
So what?: Encourages home ownership and self-improvement, promoting long-term economic stability.

Rio FBP: Success? (Yes 2 + No 4)

Successes:

• Improved quality of life, mobility, and employment prospects.

• Recognized as a model by the UN and used in other Brazilian cities.

Problems/Failures:

• Budget of US$1 billion may not cover every favela.

• Newly-built infrastructure is not being maintained, and residents may lack skills/resources for repairs.

• Rents rise in improved favelas, worsening conditions for the poorest.

• More training needed to improve literacy and employment.

Rio FBP: QOL improvements?

The project improves quality of life by:

• Providing basic sanitation (water/drainage) reducing disease.

• Improving mobility with paved roads and the cable car system.

• Increasing safety through hillside securing and the UPP.

• Offering access to healthcare, education, and leisure facilities.

• Improving housing conditions through credit/mortgages.

• Potentially improving employment prospects (though training is still needed).

Locate Bristol

The largest city in SW England.

• Good road/rail links (M4, London line),

• port access,

• airport linking to Europe/USA.

Importance of Bristol: N,I (3 each)

National Importance:

• One of UK's ten 'core cities' (Largest city in SW England).

• 2nd largest concentration of silicon chip manufacture in the world.

• The UK’s 8th most popular city for foreign tourists.

International Importance:

• Strategic M4 corridor position & Airport links (Europe/USA).

• Global industries (aerospace, finance, tech).

• Attracts FDI (Airbus, BMW) and international students (2 universities).

Impacts of migration on growth (3 + & 2 -)

Accounts for half of population growth (e.g., Polish, Spanish).

Positive Impacts:

• Provides skilled workers for key sectors (hospitality, health, tech).

• Enriches cultural life (St Paul's Carnival, diverse food).

• Helps balance ageing population.

Negative Impacts:

• Pressures on housing and employment.

• Challenge of integration without conflict - need for education for non-English speakers.

Bristol: Urban change - Two redevelopment case studies (+ 5 effects)

🟨 Point 1: Harbourside Regeneration (Leisure & Culture)
What changed:
Old warehouses / industrial buildings converted into cultural and leisure spaces.

Example/evidence:

• Museums, At-Bristol science centre, bars.

• Harbourside Festival attracts ~300,000 people annually.

🟨 Point 2: Cabot Circus Development (Retail & Accessibility)
What changed:
New £500m shopping and leisure complex in city centre.

Example/evidence:

• Cinema, 250 apartments, restaurants, shops.

• Revives city centre economy and makes it:

  • safer (CCTV)

  • more attractive (landscaping)

  • more accessible (public transport into centre (‘park and ride’))

These leisure facilities:

• provides spaces for community and youth engagement.

• reduce crime

• boost tourism

• attract employment

• compete with other cities

Socio-economic challenges & solutions (Deprivation)

CHALLENGE 1: Poor-quality housing

• Issue: Many 1930s council homes in Filwood are poorly insulated and overcrowded, leading to cold, unhealthy living conditions.

• Linked Solution: New affordable, energy-efficient housing built (e.g. Filwood Park) improves living standards and reduces fuel poverty.

CHALLENGE 2: Low education outcomes

• Issue: Only 36% achieve top GCSE grades3

• Linked Solution: Targeted investment in education (e.g. local learning centres, after-school support) helps raise attainment and life chances.

CHALLENGE 3: Poor health and life expectancy

• Problem: Life expectancy is 3 years lower than average; low sport participation;

• Solution: Urban regeneration (e.g. community facilities, sport spaces, better transport to shops) promotes healthy lifestyles.

Brownfield vs Greenfield sites & Bristol examples

Brownfield: Land previously built on, often derelict industrial sites in inner city.

Example: Bristol Harbourside before regeneration.

Greenfield: Land not built on before, often rural or on urban fringe.

Example: Harry Stoke housing development.

Definition and Impacts (4) of urban sprawl on rural-urban fringe

Definition: Growth of cities onto rural land at the rural–urban fringe.

Example: Bradley Stoke, Wotton-under-Edge (commuter settlements around Bristol).

Impacts:

1. More traffic & air pollution – longer commutes.

2. Loss of green space & habitats – rural land built over.

3. Pressure on rural services (not designed for high populations) – GPs, schools, roads often limited.

4. Less pressure on inner-city services – due to decentralisation.

Three environmental challenges & solutions

1. Waste Disposal:

   1. Challenge: Managing half a million tonnes of waste/year & reducing landfill.

   2. Solution:

      1. Increasing recycling to 50% (kerbside collections, education)

      2. Using non-recyclable waste for energy (Avonmouth plant - 200,000 tonnes → electricity for 25,000 homes).

2. Air Pollution:

   1. Challenge: Vehicle emissions main cause, high congestion, estimated 200 deaths/year.

   2. Solution:

      1. reduced speed limits

      2. promoting cycling/walking (Frome Gateway route to city centre)

      3. electric vehicle points, bio-bus.

3. Loss of Green Space/Habitats:

   1. Challenge: Development reducing natural areas.

   2. Solution:

      1. Urban greening - increasing parks/nature reserves (Portbury Wharf),

      2. Setting conservation targets (SNCI),

Bristol TQR: Temple Quarter - Challenge Addressed (2) + Challenges to regenerate (1)

• Its derelict, and visually unappealing state near the city centre risked deterring investment

• Difficult access due to railway arches and the Temple Gate carriageway limited connectivity and economic use, making regeneration essential to improve movement and attract investment.

Challenges:

• Expensive to build on a brownfield site (clearing/contamination).

Bristol TQR: Temple Quarter - Solution Implemented (3)

Enterprise Zone
Tax relief, low rents, easy planning.
🔁 So what? Attracts businesses → creates jobs.

New University Campus (former mail office)
Digital tech campus + student housing.
🔁 So what? Brings high skill students and graduates → boosting innovation, enterprise links, and long-term economic growth.

Temple Gate Scheme
Improved roads, cycle lanes, pedestrian access.
🔁 So what? Improves connectivity → more appealing to investors and commuters.

Bristol TQR: Temple Quarter - Success Evaluation (SEE 2 each)

• Social:

  • Uni campus for 11,500 students;

  • improved transport and access

• Economic - boosts local employment and economy:

  • 4,000+ jobs created;

  • 60+ tech firms attracted.

• Environmental:

  • Brownfield regeneration reduced sprawl;

  • greener transport lowered pollution (electrification shortens rail journey time)

→ Overall: Met targets, improved connectivity, boosted economy, and promoted sustainable urban growth.

Negatives / Challenges:

• Rising property prices → Risk of gentrification and social exclusion.

• Delays and rising costs → Infrastructure upgrades (e.g. rail improvements) have exceeded budgets.

• Uneven benefits → Some locals feel left out of high-skill job opportunities.

Jamaica: Tourism reducing development gap (3)

• Contributes 34% of GDP (2018).

• Main source of employment providing 200,000 jobs (direct/indirect).

• Generates taxes for the government, enabling infrastructure investment e.g., new port facilities at Trelawney.

Nigeria: Location of Nigeria

Country in West Africa.

Extends from Gulf of Guinea (south) to the Sahel (north).

Nigeria: Nigeria's global importance (3 economic and political)

A Newly-Emerging Economy (NEE).

Economic:

• Ranked 30th globally by GDP (2017).

• 13th largest oil producer (supplies 2.5% world oil).

• Diverse economy including finance, telecoms, media; Lagos is a global economic hub.

Political:

• 5th largest contributor to UN peacekeeping missions.

• Nigeria was part of the British Empire until it became independent in 1960.

• Nigeria suffered from conflict and unrest after independence but is now politically stable.

Nigeria: Nigeria's importance within Africa (3)

• Highest GDP in Africa (2014)
  → Shows Nigeria is a major economic power, granting it regional influence in trade and politics.(e.g. in ECOWAS or the African Union).

• Largest population in Africa (>182 million)
  → Provides a huge labour force and consumer market – key for economic growth and attracting investment.

• Fastest-growing economy in Africa
  → Shows rapid development and potential to lead future African progress. Allows it to invest in infrastructure, education, and health – potentially improving quality of life and reducing poverty.

Nigeria: Nigeria's Political, Physical, Social, Cultural contexts & development impact

Political:

• Past Instability (Dictatorships, Civil War 1967-70): Hindered development (corruption, instability).

• Recent Stability (since 1999): Attracts Foreign Investment:

  • China [construction in Abuja]

  • USA [Large corporations (e.g. Walmart) are operating and investing in N]

• boosting economic growth.

Physical/Environmental:

• North/South Divide:

  • South (Niger Delta, high rainfall): Oil wealth, higher GDP.

  • North (Sahel, drier): Desertification, lower GDP, agricultural challenges.

• Tsetse Fly (esp. South/Jos Plateau): Limits cattle farming, impacting agriculture.

Social:

• Ethnic/Religious Diversity & Conflict:

  • Source of Conflict (e.g., Boko Haram, past Civil War): Destabilizes, deters investment, increases unemployment.

• Inequality (North/South, Urban/Rural):

  • Fuels tensions and causes rural-urban migration, straining services.

Cultural:

• Nollywood (2nd largest film industry): Boosts economy (jobs, revenue, taxes) & global profile.

Nigeria: Change in Nigeria’s political links (before/after independence)

Before 1960 (Independence):

• Part of the British Empire; political links primarily with the UK.

After 1960:

• Independent member of British Commonwealth (equal status).

• Leading member of African (African Union, ECOWAS) & international (UN, OPEC) groups.

• 5th largest contributor to UN peacekeeping missions.

These links boost Nigeria's global reputation, political stability, and international cooperation, making it more attractive for aid and investment.

Nigeria: Change in Nigeria’s trading links (before/after example)

Main exports are crude oil (86% of total export earnings), natural gas, cocoa, cotton.

Main imports are refined petroleum, cars, phones (from China).

Trade Link Change (Crude Oil Customer):

• Before 2013: USA was the biggest customer.

• After 2013:

  • India became the biggest customer due to US shale oil.

  • Exports to Asian countries (India, China, Japan, S Korea) increased by 40% (2013-14).

• Nigeria's most important trading partner is the European Union.

New markets (e.g. India, China) provide greater demand and economic growth, but also create new dependencies on volatile global energy markets.

Nigeria: Change in Nigeria’s economic sectors (Primary/Secondary/Tertiary) & explanation

Change in Employment Structure (1991-2017):

• P: Agriculture decreased rapidly from 66% to 37%.

  • Increased farm machinery reduced agriculture jobs.

  • Better pay/conditions in other sectors attracted workers.

• S: Industry grew slightly from 11% to 18%.

  • Modern industry is mechanised, limiting job growth.

  • Secondary employment has been boosted slightly by the growth of the oil and manufacturing industries.

• T: Services grew rapidly from 29% to 57%.

  • Rapid expansion of the service sector (telecoms, finance) due to tech advances.

✅ Movement from primary to tertiary shows Nigeria’s economic development and modernisation.
➡ Higher incomes (less poverty) & diversification (more stable), but rural areas may lag (development gap)

Nigeria: TNCs (Shell oil) - Positives & Negatives (4 + 4)

Benefits of Shell (TNC) in Nigeria

Economic:

• Provides over 65,000 direct and 250,000 indirect jobs.

• Major tax revenue source for the Nigerian government.

• 91% of Shell contracts awarded to Nigerian companies, supporting local industry.

Social:

• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) projects fund education, healthcare, new infrastructure - improving QOL in local communities.

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Costs of Shell’s Presence

Environmental:

• Oil spills, e.g. Bodo (2009), contaminated water and soil, destroying fishing/agriculture.

• Gas flaring releases toxic chemicals, causing air pollution and respiratory issues.

Economic/Social:

• Profit repatriation to Shell’s HQ limits national economic gain.

• Top jobs often go to foreign workers; many locals face low pay and poor conditions.

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Overall Evaluation (Verdict)

Shell’s operations bring significant economic benefits, including job creation and support for local businesses, and contribute to infrastructure development.
However, the long-term environmental damage, unequal job opportunities, and loss of profits abroad highlight the downsides of TNC involvement.
Conclusion: Shell’s impact is economically positive, but socially and environmentally unsustainable in the long term.

Nigeria: Aid to Nigeria: types, examples, impact, limitations

Sources/Examples:

• Individual countries (UK, USA) - Bilateral Aid

  • USA - funded projects to limit AIDS spread

• International organisations - Multilateral Aid

  • World Bank - US$500M loans for developments projects (in 2015)

• NGOs - Voluntary Aid

  • Nets for Life - malaria prevention (education and bed net distribution)

  • ActionAid - Creation of an Aduwan Health Centre (tests and immunisations).

Impact:

• Improves healthcare (HIV programs, immunisation, nets).

• Supports businesses & reduces oil dependence (World Bank loans).

• Provides basic needs - improves QOL.

Limitations:

• Corruption and diversion of funds by government.

• Donor countries may have political or commercial self-interest/

  • The UK government has given aid to support economic development and poverty reduction in Nigeria. However, the UK also has commercial ties to Shell, a major British-Dutch oil company operating in the Niger Delta.

    • So what? This raises concerns that aid may indirectly support UK commercial interests (e.g. stabilising regions where British companies operate), rather than purely helping the poorest communities.

• Can create dependency on aid.

Nigeria: Environmental issues from development in Nigeria

1. Oil Spills in the Niger Delta (e.g. Bodo – 11m gallons)

• Destroys ecosystems → harms fishing/farming livelihoods → causes unemployment and conflict.

2. 70–80% of total Forests destroyed (industrial growth) → Desertification

• Tree removal reduces soil quality (leaching/erosion) → worsens food security in the north → forces migration to cities, and increases congestion.

3. Urban Growth (e.g. Abuja)

• Rapid growth → traffic, air pollution, unmanaged waste → health risks in informal settlements.

Nigeria: Quality of life improvement in Nigeria: Yes, No, Overall (4 +3)

Arguments for "Yes" (Improvements):

• HDI rose by ~14% in 12 years, reflecting steady human development.

• Life expectancy increased by 8 years — due to better healthcare and nutrition.

• Access to safe water up by 17%, improving sanitation and public health.

• Secondary school enrolment rose 20%, expanding access to education.

Arguments for "No" (Limitations):

• 60% still live in extreme poverty (<$1/day) — improvements not reaching all.

• Corruption and mismanagement reduce the impact of national income gains.

• Regional inequality — the north remains far less developed than the south.

• Over-reliance on oil makes growth unstable and unsustainable.

Overall:

• Quality of life has improved overall based on key development indicators, but benefits are unevenly distributed, and significant challenges (poverty, inequality, corruption, instability) mean many people have seen limited or no improvement.

UK: UK Economy Change (Deindustrialisation, Globalisation, Govt Policy)

UK economy shifted from primary/secondary to tertiary/quaternary sectors.

1. De-industrialisation

• 📉 What: Decline in manufacturing (now ~9% of GDP)

• Why:

  • Automation = fewer manual jobs (e.g. car factories)

  • Cheaper labour abroad (e.g. China, India)

• 🧠 So what:

  • Collapse of heavy industry in North (e.g. Sheffield steel) → unemployment + urban decline

  • Regional inequality: wealth concentrates in the South

2. Globalisation

• What: Growth of global trade + tech links

• Why:

  • Internet + transport = services can be done anywhere

  • UK firms outsource to cut costs (e.g. BA software → India)

• 🧠 So what:

  • Tertiary/quaternary sectors grow (e.g. Cambridge Science Park)

  • BUT job losses in traditional sectors → economic restructuring

3. Government Policy

• 🏛 What: Decisions shift economy towards private + knowledge sectors

• Examples:

  • 1980s: Privatisation (e.g. British Gas) → reduced industrial support

  • Post-2010: Infrastructure investment (e.g. HS2), Northern Powerhouse

• 🧠 So what:

  • Aims to rebalance North–South divide

  • Focus on high-skill jobs + connectivity, but benefits uneven

UK: UK Post-Industrial Economy (IT, Service, Finance, Research)

🔹 Definition:

A post-industrial economy is where manufacturing declines and the service + quaternary sectors grow.
📉 Manufacturing = 10%
📈 Services = 78%, Quaternary = 10% (2015)

🔹 Key Sectors: 💻 1. Information Technology (IT)

• Employs 1.3 million+

• Transformed work: remote working, instant communication, data access

• UK = leading digital economy (e.g. Shoreditch tech hub)
  ✅ Impact: Attracts global investment, encourages start-ups, links to globalisation

2. Services + Finance

• Services = 79%+ UK output

• Finance = 10% GDP, 2 million+ jobs, based in City of London

• Includes: banking, insurance, fund management
  ✅ Impact: High-income jobs; global influence; core to economic growth

3. Research (Quaternary Sector)

• Employs 60,000+, adds £3 billion+

• Based in universities (Cambridge, Manchester), gov. bodies (e.g. British Antarctic Survey), private firms
  ✅ Impact: Drives innovation, creates highly-skilled jobs, boosts exports

🧠 Exam-Worthy Explanation (So what?)

• Growth of high-skill sectors → boosts GDP, global competitiveness

• Deepens North–South divide: concentrated in South + uni cities

• R&D + digital links = critical to low-carbon, knowledge-driven future

UK: Southampton Science Park (Location, Sustainability, vs Business Park)

📍 Ideal Location – Why it matters:

• Near M3, airport, rail → ensures easy access for workers, clients & deliveries, boosting business productivity

• Linked to University of Southampton → access to cutting-edge research + skilled graduates, encouraging innovation and spin-offs

• Green, well-equipped site (nursery, gym) → helps attract and retain top talent, making it competitive

♻ Sustainability (SEE) – So what?:

• Social: Creates skilled local employment; strong uni links raise education-employment pathways → reduces inequality, improves quality of life

• Economic: Encourages start-ups and inward investment, boosting regional GDP → e.g. SEaB Energy supports green innovation and exports

• Environmental: Maintains green space + supports eco-tech → promotes long-term sustainable growth with low environmental impact

🧪 Science Parks vs 🏢 Business Parks – Why this matters:

• Science Parks: Uni-linked, knowledge-based industries → ideal for innovation, R&D and high-value jobs

• Business Parks: Mixed businesses, often for cost-saving/logistics → focus is less on innovation, more on commercial clustering

UK: Industry Environmental Impacts & Solutions (UK)

Based on general industry & Torr Quarry example:

• 🌍 Impact 1: Pollution

  • Dust and runoff pollute air and water

  • Noise and vibrations affect locals

  ✅ Solution:

  • Monitoring of dust, water, noise, and vibration

  • Use of desulphurisation tech to cut harmful emissions
    ➤ So what? Ensures local health & ecosystem protection; avoids fines & public opposition

• 🌿 Impact 2: Landscape & Habitat Loss

  • Quarrying causes visual scarring and destroys habitats

  ✅ Solution:

  • Restoration: 200 acres landscaped with grass, trees

  • Wildlife lakes created for water, biodiversity & recreation

  • Deepening quarry (not widening) → less land destroyed

    ➤ So what? Improves local biodiversity, landscape, and public support; allows continued operation more sustainably

UK: Rural Landscape Changes (Outer Hebrides vs South Cambridgeshire)

South Cambridgeshire (Growth): Social Impacts:

• Higher demand for schools & healthcare straining services.

• House-price inflation causing affordability issues for locals.

Economic Impacts:

• Boost in local spending & service jobs supporting growth.

• Pressure on SMEs to expand capacity, adding costs.

Outer Hebrides (Decline): Social Impacts:

• School & GP closures reducing access to essential services.

• Declining community events losing social cohesion & volunteer base.

Economic Impacts:

• Fall in fishing & croft viability hurting traditional economy.

• Shellfish beds leased externally limiting local economic benefit.

UK: Infrastructure & UK Economy Growth (HS2, L2, Heathrow)

Improvements can boost economic growth:

• HS2 Rail: New high-speed line linking London to the North; improves connectivity between major economic centres, supports 'Northern Powerhouse'.

• Liverpool 2 Port: £400M deep-water container terminal at Port of Liverpool; doubles capacity, creates 5000+ jobs, boosts north-west economy.

• Heathrow Expansion: Proposed new third runway; predicted to create more jobs (76000+ already employed), increase UK's economic output, handles massive passenger/freight volumes (78M+ passengers 2017).

UK: North South Divide (Reasons, Issues, Reduction)

• Reasons: Historic decline of northern heavy industry post-1970s, growth of London/SE service sector as a global financial centre.

• Main Issues (Data): Lower average pay in North/Wales/NI (£18.5k-£25k) vs London (£28k); higher unemployment % in North/Wales/NI (up to 9.9%); lower life expectancy.

• Reduction Strategies:

• Transport improvements (e.g., HS2 connecting North-South, Liverpool2 improving NW links).

• Local Enterprise Partnerships (LEPs) identifying business needs, encouraging investment (e.g., Lancashire LEP aims 50k new jobs).

• Enterprise Zones providing business rate discounts, broadband, simpler planning to attract firms & jobs (e.g., Samlesbury/Warton EZs).

UK: UK Links with Wider World (Trade, Culture, Transport, E-comm)

• Trade: Strongest links with EU (single market), important partners USA & growing link with China.

• Culture: Global importance of English language; major TV export market (e.g., Dr Who, Downton Abbey - £1.28B exports 2013-14); imports like food (Indian), films (Bollywood).

• Transport: Heathrow is major global hub (78M+ passengers); Channel Tunnel & ferries link to Europe; Southampton is key cruise port.

• Electronic Communication: UK is focus for global submarine cables (99% internet traffic); key links to USA; projects like Arctic Fibre cable (London-Tokyo).

UK: UK and the EU (+/-)

• Advantages:

• Financial support for farmers (£18M+ for dairy farmers 2015).

• Financial support for disadvantaged regions.

• Access to the biggest single market for goods, services, capital, labour.

• Disadvantages:

• Some view EU rules as restrictive for businesses.

• Migration from poorer EU countries potentially impacting jobs/wages (2013: 200k+ EU immigrants).

UK: UK and the Commonwealth (Role, +/-)

• UK's Role: Member of voluntary group of 53 countries (mostly former colonies); supports Commonwealth Secretariat advice/development goals; heads of state meet every 2 years.

• Advantages:

• Important trading and cultural links between member countries.

• Platform for international cooperation and discussion.

• Sporting connections via the Commonwealth Games ('Friendly Games').

• Disadvantages: The provided source text does not explicitly list disadvantages of UK membership in the Commonwealth.

Chambamontera MHS: Chambamontera micro-hydro: Location

Isolated community in the Andes Mountains of Peru, >2 hours drive from nearest town Jaen.

Chambamontera MHS: Why Chambamontera needs sustainable energy (3)

• Isolated community with low population density, making a grid uneconomic.

• Severe restriction on development due to lack of electricity for heat, light, and power.

• Dependency on subsistence farming with nearly half population surviving on $2 a day.

Chambamontera MHS: How Chambamontera scheme works + why

How it works:

• Water is diverted from a river (intake).

• Flows down a pipe to a power house.

• Turns a turbine/generator to create electricity.

Why it works well here:

• Region has high rainfall.

• Has steep slopes.

• Has fast-flowing rivers.

Chambamontera MHS: Chambamontera scheme: +/- Impacts

Positives:

• Provides renewable energy with little environmental impact.

• Enables business development (e.g., coffee processing).

• Improves healthcare (refrigeration for medicines) and education (light for study).

• Reduces need to burn wood, leading to reduced deforestation/soil erosion.

Negatives:

• 💧 Seasonal variability – Less electricity during dry seasons due to reduced water flow.

• 💰 High initial costs – Setup cost ~US$51,000; households paid ~US$750, which is expensive for locals.

• 🌍 Environmental impacts – Alters river flow, risks minor erosion and disruption to aquatic habitats.

• ⚡ Limited scalability – Difficult to expand as energy needs grow beyond current system capacity.

Chambamontera MHS: Chambamontera scheme: Sustainability (4)

• Uses a renewable resource (water) with little environmental impact.

• Built and maintained using local labour and materials.

• Provides a long-term energy source (lasts 25+ years).

• Reduces deforestation by lessening need for wood.