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Heredity
The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another.
Nature
The influence of inherited characteristics on behavior.
Nurture
The influence of the environment on behavior.
Genetic predisposition
An inherited genetic tendency that increases the likelihood of a particular behavior or condition.
Evolutionary perspective
A viewpoint that emphasizes the role of evolution in shaping behavior.
Natural selection
The process by which inherited traits that increase an organism's chances of survival and reproduction are passed on to future generations.
Eugenics
The study of or belief in the possibility of improving the human race by selective breeding.
Adoption studies
Research studies that assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and adoptive parents.
Twin studies
Research studies that assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between identical and fraternal twins.
Family studies
Research studies that assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between family members.
Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and transmitting information.
Peripheral nervous system
The part of the nervous system outside the central nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
Autonomic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.
Sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies.
Parasympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
Somatic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Neurons
Nerve cells that are the basic building blocks of the nervous system, responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information.
Glial cells
Support cells in the nervous system that play a role in nourishing neurons, removing waste, and providing insulation.
Reflex arc
The neural pathway that controls a reflex action, allowing for a rapid response to a stimulus.
Sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming sensory information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
Motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing motor information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
Interneurons
Neurons that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
Neural transmission
The process by which information is communicated within the nervous system through electrical and chemical signals.
Action potential
A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters.
All-or-nothing principle
The principle that once an action potential is triggered, it will either fire at full strength or not at all.
Depolarization
The process during the action potential when sodium ions rush into the cell, making it more positive.
Refractory period
A brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired, during which it cannot generate another action potential.
Resting potential
The state of a neuron when it is at rest and capable of generating an action potential.
Reuptake
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after they have transmitted a neural impulse.
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
Multiple sclerosis
A disease in which the immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves, disrupting communication between the brain and the body.
Myasthenia gravis
A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease that causes weakness in the skeletal muscles.
Excitatory neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters that excite the next cell into firing.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters that inhibit the next cell from firing.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter that plays a role in pleasure, reward, and motor function.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal.
Glutamate
The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
GABA
The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Endorphins
Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood elevators.
Substance p
A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory.
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and circulate in the bloodstream, regulating bodily functions.
Adrenaline
A hormone that prepares the body for fight or flight responses.
Leptin
A hormone that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.
Ghrelin
A hormone that stimulates appetite.
Melatonin
A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.
Oxytocin
A hormone that plays a role in social bonding and childbirth.
Psychoactive drugs
Substances that alter mood, behavior, or consciousness.
Agonists
Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters and enhance their effects.
Antagonists
Drugs that block neurotransmitters' functioning.
Reuptake inhibitors
Drugs that prevent neurotransmitter reuptake, increasing their availability in the synaptic gap.
Stimulants
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
Caffeine
A stimulant found in coffee, tea, and various other beverages.
Cocaine
A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant.
Depressants
Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow down body functions.
Alcohol
A depressant that affects the central nervous system, impairing judgment and coordination.
Hallucinogens
Drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
Marijuana
A mild hallucinogen derived from the cannabis plant.
Opioids
Drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
Heroin
An illegal opioid drug derived from morphine.
Tolerance
The diminishing effect of a drug that occurs with regular use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect.
Addiction
A compulsive craving for a substance despite adverse consequences.
Withdrawal
The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
Brain stem
The oldest part of the brain responsible for automatic survival functions.
Medulla
The base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.
Reticular activating system
A network of neurons in the brainstem that plays a crucial role in arousal and attention.
Reward center
A group of neural structures responsible for the brain's reward and pleasure responses.
Cerebellum
The
Cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for higher-level thinking.
Limbic system
A set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.
Thalamus
The brain's sensory control center, directing messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmitting replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus, governing bodily maintenance functions and influencing hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior.
Pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland, regulating growth and controlling other endocrine glands.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Amygdala
Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Corpus callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Occipital lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head, responsible for processing visual information.
Temporal lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears, responsible for auditory processing.
Parietal lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear, responsible for sensory input and spatial reasoning.
Association areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
Somatosensory cortex
The area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
Frontal lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying behind the forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.
Linguistic processing
The cognitive processes involved in understanding and producing language.
Higher-order thinking
Complex cognitive processes that involve critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Executive functioning
Cognitive processes that enable goal-directed behavior, including planning, organizing, and self-regulation.
Prefrontal cortex
The part of the frontal lobes responsible for personality, decision-making, and moderating social behavior.
Motor cortex
The area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
Split brain research
Research conducted on patients with severed corpus callosum to study the functions of the brain hemispheres.
Hemispheric specialization
The idea that the left and right hemispheres of the brain have specialized functions.
Broca's area
An area of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production.
Wernicke's area
An area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension.
Aphasia (Broca's and Wernicke's)
Language impairment resulting from damage to Broca's or Wernicke's area, affecting speech production or comprehension.
Contralateral hemispheric organization
The principle that each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.
Plasticity
The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning or experience.
EEG
Electroencephalogram, a recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain's surface.
fMRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging, a technique for revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
Lesioning
Destroying a piece of the brain to observe the effects on behavior or function.
Consciousness
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Circadian rhythm (sleep/wake cycle)
The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
