Anatomy and Physiology Exam 2 Study Guide

Long Bone Structure

Diaphysis: long shaft

• central cavity: medullary cavity

  • yellow marrow- fatty

  • red marrow- blood production

• endosteum: cavity lining continuouse with central canals of the osteons

• periosteum: vascular surface covering

• articular cartilage: surfaces of each epiphysis (hyaline)

Epiphysis: enlarged ends

Metaphysis: growth zones between the epiphysis and diaphysis, contains the epiphyseal disc (hyaline cartilage growth plates)

Bone Processes, Depressions, and Openings

foramen- opening for nerves and vessels

fossa- shallow depression, sockets

sulcus- grooves

fissure- narrow groove

sinus- cavity

condyle- rounded protuberance articulating with another bone

tuberosity- rough process that serves as an attachment for muscle

tubercle- small, rounded process

trochanter- large process

process- projection

head- area supported by a constricted neck

crest- narrow ridge

spine- sharp, slender process

sesamoid- rounded

general composition of axial skeleton

1. skull

2. hyoid

3. vertebral column

4. rib cage (12 pairs + sternum)

number of bones in the adult

206

general composition of appendicular skeleton

1. upper extremity

   • pectoral girdle

     • scapula

     • clavical

   • arm

     • humerus

     • radius

     • ulna

   • hand

     • carpals

     • metalcarpals

     • phalanges

2. lower extremity

   • pelvic girdle

     • os coxe; joint between anteriorly is the symphysis pubis

     • sacrum

   • leg

     • femur

     • tibia

     • fibula

     • patella

   • foot

     • tarsals

     • calcaneous

     • metatarsals

     • phalanges

types of bone fractures

closed- simple fracture that do not penetrate skin

open- compound fracture that break through the skin

complete- broken clean through

• transverse- right able to the long axis

• oblique- angled to the long axis

• spiral- from torional forces

incomplete- splintered, partial break, greenstick or linear

segmented- a single fragment

comminuted- 2 or more fragments

displaced- bone fragments out of alignment

compression- vertical compacted forces

compacted- portion of bone driven into the same bone

Skull Composition

Cranium- portion of the skull encasing the brain joined together by sutures

composed of…

frontal- anterior, forms the eyebrow ridges, bridge of nose, inferior eye orbits

• supraorbital foramina- openings on the superior orbital ridge

two parietals- superior, meet at the midline at the sagittal suture, meet the frontal bone at the coronal suture

• ridges- superior and inferior temporal line

occipital- posterior, inferior, joined to the parietals by the lambdoidal suture

• occipital condyls- rest on fossa of the atlas, contains the hypoglossal canals

• external occipital protuberance- prominent process on the median line

• foramen magnum- surrounds the brain stem

two temporals- inferior to parietals, joined tothe parietals by the squamosal suture

• mandibular fossa- depression for jaw articulatoin (mandibular condyl)

• external acoustic meatus- opening for ear canal, posterior to mandibular fossa

• processes

  • zygomatic- slender, articulates with the zygomatic bone meets at the zygomatic arch

  • styloid- spinelike, extends down from temporal bone, attachment for muscles of the pharynx, tongue

  • mastoid- rounded, inferior to the styloid, attachment of the sternocleidomastoideus of the neck

sphenoid- lateral to lateral; 2 greater wings (temple region), orbital surfaces (posterior eye orbits) and the pterygoid processes (ventral)

ethmoid- medial eye orbits, roof of the nasal cavity. contains the perpendicular plate medially, superior and middle nasal conchae

Floor of the Cranium

cranial fossae- 3 large depressions

• anterior cranial fossa, formed by the orbital plates

• posterior cranial fossa, deep, occipital bone depression

• middle cranial fossa- sphenoid, temporal bone depression between the other two

ethmoid- perforated frontal portion is the cribform plate and crista galli (cock’s comb: upward projection)

sphenoid- hypophyseal fossa: depression holding the pituitary gland

• sella turica (turkish saddle) is composed of hypophyseal fossa, dorsum sella (elevated ridge), and the spines of the clinoid process

temporals- 3 divisions

• squamous portion, thin and flat

• petrous portion, hardest portion of the skull, medially contains the internal acoustic meatus for the acoustic nerve

• mastoid portion

Parts of the Face- 13 fused bones

maxilla- upper jaw, 2 maxillary bones fused medially at the palatine suture

16 permanent teeth in a socket (alveolus) in the maxilla (alveolar process)

palatines- 2 fused together form the hard palate

zygomatics- cheek and inferior later eye orbit

nasals- thin, rectangular nasal bones

lacrimals- one in each orbit

vomer- unpaired, in the nasal cavity medial

inferior nasal conchae- curved bones attached to the nasal fossa

mandible- not fused

• body, horizontal

• rami- vertical (2)

• symphysis- point of fusion along the midline

paranasal sinuses

• frontal sinuses- above the eyes, forehead

• maxillary

• sphenoidal

• ethmoid air cells

where are the sinuses located?

paranasal sinuses

• frontal sinuses- above the eyes, forehead

• maxillary

• sphenoidal

• ethmoid air cells

parts of the fetal skull

fontaonels: unossified membranous areas, ossification complete by 2 years old

anterior fontanel- median, frontal to parietal

posterior fontaonel- medial parietal to occipital

sphenoidal fontanel- behind eye orbit

mastoid fontanel- juncture between parietal, temporal, occipital

Parts of the Vertebra Column

Body- structural mass, load bearing, connected to the intervetebral discs (24 discs that cushion the joints)

transverse processes- connect and articulate with other vertebrae

• superior articulating surface of the top vertebrae contacts the inferior articulating surface of the bottom vertebrae

spinal foramen- center opening containing the spinal cord

• opening gets smaller superior to inferior spinal column

pedicles- bony arch around the spinal foramen; allow spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord

intervertebral foramen- opening for spinal nerves

laminae- two broad plates between te transverse processes

neural arch- 2 laminae+ 2 pedicles

parts of the cervical 7

atlas- first, accommodates a portion of the brain stem

• small transverse foramen for artery and vein

axis- has odontoid process (dens: vertical protrusion) that provides a pivot for atlas rotation

parts of thoracic 12 (one for each rib)

larger and thicker, all have articulate facets for the ribs

has costal facet

parts of the lumbar 5

large thick body to support weight and stress

sacrum (5)

medial sacral crest

sacral hiatus- opening at the lower end of the sacral canal

coccyx (4-5)

rudimentary vertebrae

triangular in shape

attached to sacrum by ligaments

name the spinal curvatures

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, pelvic

thorax + rib structure

Rib Structure

head- end that articulates with vertebrae

neck- flattened portion between head and tubercle

terbercle- articulating portions

body- flattened curved section

Sternum

manubrium (upper)

body (middle)

xiphoid process (lower)

Ribs 12 pairs

vertebrosternal ribs (true ribs) 7 pairs; attached to sternum

vertebrochondral ribs (upper 3 pairs of false ribs)

vertebral ribs (floating false ribs)

Hyoid bone segments

horseshoe, shaped bone, no articulation

body, central portion

lesser cornua (2) long arms, distal end terminates in a tubercle

greater cornua- (2) conical eminences

Upper Extremity

pectoral girdle: scapula + clavical

clavical- s shape, articulates with manubrium of the sternum medially and the scapula laterally

scapula- triangular flat bone of the shoulder

• glenoid cavity- socket for humerus

• scapular spine- ridge on posterior side dividing the superior (supraspinous fossa) from the inferior (infraspinous fossa)

• subscapular fossa- anterior concave surface

• scapular notch- on the superior margin, just medial to the coracoid process

• 3 margins

  • medial- vertebral margin

  • lateral- axillary margin

  • superior- superior margin

• lateral process

  • acromion, attachment of clavical posteroirly

  • coracoid, anterior, smaller process, bent laterally

Upper Arm

Humerus

• head- proximal

• neck- narrow section below the head

• Tubercles

  • greater tubercle- lateral

  • lesser tubercle- medial

• surgical neck- narrow section below the tubercles

• tuberosity- deltoid tuberosity-rough area on diaphysis

• distal areas

  • condyles

    • capitulum, lateral articulates with radius

    • trochlea, medial, articulates with ulna

  • fossa (depressions)

    • coronoid fossa, superior to the trochlea

    • olecranon fossa, posterior end

lower arm: radius

lateral

• connected to thumb

• head, articulates with capitulum of humerus

• radial tuberosity, medial surface attaches to the biceps brachii flexor muscle

• neck, area between the head and the radial tuberosity

• styloid process, distal prominence that rotates with the wrist

lower arm: ulna

medial

olecranon process, proximal end

semilunar notch- anterior depression

coronoid process, anterior process below the semilunar notch

radial notch- depression when ulna contacts the head of the radius

hand

carpals- wrist (8 bones)

metacarpals- palm (5 bones)

phalanges- fingers (3 each finger, 2 in the thumb)

lower extremity: pelvic girdle

os coax: ilium, ischium, pubis- ossification is complete in the adult and the suture lines are not visible

front arch- os coax join at the symphysis pubis

articulates with sacrum and coccyx in back at the sacrum articulating surface

• sacroiliac joint- between sacrum and ilium

• iliac fossa- depresssion of the medial surface

• acute line- ridge below iliac fossa

• acetabulum- circular depression for femur

• iliac crest- from the anterior superior spine to the posterior superior spine

• ischium processes

  • ischial spine

  • ischial tuberosity- one sits on this

  • lesses sciatic notch- inferior to the ischial spine

  • greater ischial notch- superior to the ischial spine

  • obturator foramen- opening surrounded by ishium and pubis

• pubis

upper leg: femur

proximal end

• head- spherical

• neck

• trochanters

  • greater trochanter- large, lateral

  • lesser trochanter- small, medial

  • intertrochanteric line- ridge between trochanters anteriorly

  • intertrochanteric crest- ridge between trochanters posteriorly

distal end

• lateral condyle

• medial condyle

lower leg

tibia- larger

• proximal end

  • medial condyle

  • lateral condyle

  • tibial tuberosity- below the condyles

• distal end

  • medial malleolus- inner prominence of the ankle

  • anterior crest

fibula- smaller, lateral

• proximal end

  • head- articulates with the tibia

  • neck

• distal end- lateral malleolus, outer anklebone

• anterior crest

foot

tarsus- 7 bones, calcaneous is the largest tarsal bone

metatarsal- instep, 5 elongated bones

phalanges- 3 in each toe, 2 in the great toe

Types of Joints

immovable- no mobility

• synchondroses

  • held by cartilage (ex: metaphysix of long bones- growth plate)

• sutures

  • irregular joints between flat bones, held by fibrous connective tissue continuous with the periosteum of the skull outisde and the dura mater inside

slightly movable

• symphyses- interbertebral joints: pad of fibrocartilage, fibroelastic capsule

• syndesmoses- held together by an interosseus ligament (fibula-tibia)

freely movable: synovial joints

• bone ends covered with articular cartilage

• fibrous articular capsule holds joints together

  • ligaments- outer

  • synovial membrane- inner; produceburs synovium

  • bursae- sacs of synovial tissue

types of freely movable joints

gliding- wrist, ankle

hinge- elbow, knee

condyloid- oval shaped bones, elliptical movement; wrist

saddle- covex bones + concave; thumb

pivot- roational around an axis; atlas + axis vertebrae

ball and socket- all directions; shoulder + hip

shoulder joint

articular cartilage on connecting surfaces

6-7 bursae

hip joint

enclosed in an articular capsule

3 accessory ligaments

• iliofemoral- anterior

• pubocapsular- medial

• ischiocapsular- posterior

knee joint

most stressed joint of the body

semilunar cartilage (menisci) absorb stress; made of fibrocartilage, concave

• lateral meniscus- lateral condyle of the femur + tibia

• medial meniscusmedial condyle + tibia

• connected by transverse ligament

ligaments

• cruciates- form X on posterior surface

  • posterior cruciate

  • anterior cruciate

• fibular collateral ligament- lateral

• tibial collateral ligament- medial

• oblique + arcuate popliteal- posterior

fibrous capsule- cover entire joint

patella- held by quadriceps tendon + patellar ligament

synovial membrane- lining

suprapatellar bursa- space between the synovial membrane + femur

gross anatomy

endomysium- thin layer of connective tissue separating each individual muscle fiber

fasciculi- bundle of muscle fibers

perimysium- covering of fibrous connective tisue surrounding each bundle (fasciculi)

epimysium- outer covering of coarse, connective tissue wrapping the entire muscle

deep fascia- surrounds the epimysium, covering the entire muscle and is continuous with tendons, ligaments and the periosteum

superficial fascia- connective tissue holding the deep fascia to the skin

muscle attachment terms

origin- anchor; attached to immovable end

insertion- moving end

type of attachment

directly- attached to periosteum

tendon- band of white fibrous tissue; bone to muscle

aponeurosis- broad flat sheet of glistening pearly- white fibrous connective tissue; bone to bone or bone to muscle

microscopic structure

motor unit- bundle of muscle fibers controlled by a single neuromuscular junction

muscle fiber- individual muscle cell with thousand of myofibrils

• sarcoplasm, intracellular fluid

• sarcolemma, muscle cell membrane

• t-tubules, connect sarcolemma to sarcoplasmic reticulum

• sarcoplasmic reticulum, specialized ER surrounding each myofibril

  • cisterns

  • calcium channels

• myofibril, linear set of sarcomeres

  • sarcomere

    • thick filaments

      • myosin

    • thin filaments

      • f actin (strings of g-actin)

      • g-actin

      • tropomyosin (shields active site)

      • troponin (building site for calcium)

    • M line, connected to thick filaments and middle

    • Z line, connected to thin filaments and end of alphabet

Neuromuscular Junction

point at which a nerve fiber contacts a muscle fiber

• usually at the fiber midpoint so that the impulse reaches both ends at the same time

• structure contains…

  • synaptic gutters, invaginations of the sarcolemma

  • axon terminals, knob like branching terminals

  • axon terminal branch, each individual knob

  • synaptic cleft, gap

  • pre-synaptic membrane, axon end

  • post-synaptic membrane, muscle end

  • junctional folds, subneural clefts; infoldings of the sarcolemma on the post-synaptic side

transmission across the synaptic cleft

depolarization: sodium gates open, sodium ions flow out

• causes an action potential

repolarization: potassium gates open, potassium ions flow in

Impulse reaches synapse to open calcium gates, allowing calcium ions to flow into the axon at the axon terminals

Calcium releasesthe acetylcholine filled synaptic vesicles which diffuse to the membrane and release the neurotransmitter into the cleft

ACh diffuses out of the pre-synaptic membrane and binds to receptors on the post synaptic membrane

The action potential is again initiated on the sarcolemma

The action potential causes muscle-fiber shortening by releasing calcium

Calcium activates ATP release from mitochondria to supply the energy required for contraction

Inactivation is the result of acetylcholinesterase which breaks the neurotransmitter down into acetate and choline

Acetate and choline are reabsorbed by the presynaptic membrane and resynthesized into ACh by choline acetyltransferase

body movement

extension- increased angle of the joint

• hyperextension- beyound normal posture

flexion- decreased angle of the joint

• dorsiflexion: foot- flexed upward

• plantar flexion: flexion of the toes, foot downward

abduction- away from median

adduction- towards the median

rotation- movement around the bone’s longitudinal axis without lateral displacement; rotation of the arm at the shoulder, or head

circumduction- circle movement at a freely movable joint

supination- turning the palm up

pronation- turning the palm down

inversion- applies to the foot; toward the median

eversion- applies to the foot; away from the median

sphincter; circular muscles; orbicularis oculi; orbicularis oris

muscle groupings

agonist- flexors, prime movers

antagonist- extensors, opposing muscle group

synergists- assist agonists

fixation muscles- hold structures in position

how many axial bones are there?

80

how many appendicular bones are there?

126

what are the cranial bones

frontal

• suture coronal suture ( between parietal and frontal)

• frontal sinuses

parietal (2)

• sutures are

  • sagittal (between parietals)

  • lamboidal (between parietal and occipital)

  • squamous (between parietal and temporal)

occipital

• occipital condyls

• external occipital protuberance

• foramen magnum

temporal (2)

• squamous portion

  • mandibular fossa

  • zygomatic process

• petrous portion

• mastoid portion

  • external/internal auditory meatus

  • styloid process

  • mastoid process

sphenoid

• greater wings

• lesser wings

• sella turica

• optic canals

• sphenoid sinus

ethmoid

• perpendicular plate

• cribform plate

• crista galli

• superior and medial nasal concha

sutures

• coronal

• saggital

• lamboid

• squamous

facial bones

maxilla (2 fused midially)

• alveolar processes

• alveolus (socket)

palatine (2 fused to form hard palate)

zygomatic (2)

• zygomatic arch

nasal (2)

lacrimal (2)

vomer (1)

inferior nasal concha (2)

mandible

• rami

  • condylar process (articulates in mandibular fossa)

  • coronoid process (more pointed)

• angle

• body

fetal skull

fontanelles

• sphenoidal (anterior to the squamosal suture)

• mastoid (lateral and posterior- at the end of the lamboidal suture)

• anterior (at coronal suture)

• posterior (at sagittal suture/ occipital bone junction)

associated bones

hyoid

• greater horns

• lesser horns

auditory ossicles

• malleus

• incus

• stapes

parts of the vertebrae

body

transverse process

vertebral foramen

pedicles

lamine

spinous process

intervertebral foramina

vertebral canal

types of vertebrae

cervical (7)

• atlas

  • transverse foramen

• axis

  • dens

  • transverse foramen

thoracic (12, articulate with ribs)

• costal facet

lumbar (5)

sacrum (5)

• medial sacral crest

• sacral hiatus

coccyx (4)

ribs

types

• vertebrosternal ribs (true- 7 pair)

• vertebrochondral ribs (false- 3 pair)

• vertebral ribs (false-floating - pair)

• costal cartilages

parts of a rib

• head

• neck

• tubercle

• shaft

sternum

manubrium

body

xiphoid process

What is part of the pectoral girdle?

clavical and scapula

What is part of the clavical

acromial end

sternal end

sternoclavicular joint

what is part of the scapula

coracoid process

acromion process

supraspinous fossa

infraspinous fossa

glenoid cavity

superior angle

inferior angle

subscapular fossa

scapular spine

what are the bones of the arm?

humerus, radius, and ulna

Parts of the Humerus

head

neck

greater tubercle

lesser tubercle

surgical neck

deltoid tuberosity

medial epicondyle

lateral epicondyle

capitulum

trochlea

olecranon fossa

Parts of the Radius

head

neck

radial tuberosity

styloid process

parts of the ulna

olcrannon process

trochlear notch

styloid process

parts of the hand

carpals (8) sam likes to push the toy car hard

proximal row (radial to ulnar)

• scaphoid

• lunate

• triquetrum

• pisiform

distal row

• trapezium

• trapezoid

• capitate

• hamate

metacarpals (5) make up most of the palm

phalanges (3 in each finger, 2 in the thumb)

parts of the pelvic girdle

coxal bones (2) created by fusion of

illium

• illiac crest

• greater siatic notch

pubis

• pubic symphyses

• pubic angle

ischium

• ischial tuberosity

• ischial spine

obturator foramen (pubis and ischium)

acetabulum- formed by all three

sacrum

• sacro-iliac joint

coccyx

pelvic outlet

parts of the leg

femur

• head

• neck

• greater trochanter

• lesser trochanter

• medial condyle

• lateral condyle

patella

• base

• apex

tibia

• tibial tuberosity

• medial malleolus

• medial condyle

• lateral condyle

fibula

• head

• lateral malleolus

parts of the foot

tarsals (7)

• talus

• calcaneous (heel)

• navicular (medial)

• cuboid (lateral)

• cuniforms (3 each foot- medial)

metatarsals (5)

phalanges (14, 3 in each toes, 2 in the big toe)

• hallux (big toe)

fibrous

sutures of the skull

comphosis- teeth in alveolar sockets

syndesmosis- interosseous membranes

cartilagenous

symphyses

• pubis symphysis

• intervertebral discs

synchondrosis

• between the manubrium and first rib

• epiphyseal plate

synovial

hinge

pivot

ball and socket

planar

synarthrosis

sutures of the skull

gomphosis

synchondrosis

amphiarthrosis

syndesmosis: interosseous membrane

• tibial-fibula

• radius-ulna

diarthrosis

synovial joints

• ball and socket

• hinge

• planar

• pivot

structure list for synovial joints

articular capsule

articular cartilage

synovial membrane

joint cavity

synovial fluid

bursae

fat pads

structure of the knee joint

lateral collateral ligament (LCL)

medial collateral ligament (MCL)

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)

posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)

medial meniscus

lateral meniscus

movement around joints

gliding

circumduction

rotation

flexion

lateral flexion

dorsiflexion

plantar flexion

extension

hyperextension

adduction

abduction

pronation

supination

opposition

retraction and protraction

depression and elevation