Anatomy
Study of structure and form
Physiology
Study of what the structure does and how it works
Homeostasis
Equilibrium of the body’s internal environment; always being challenged so it is constantly adjusting
Levels of structural organization
Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
System
Organismal
Chemical
Atoms that come together to form molecules
Cellular
Molecules coming together to form cells
Tissue
Cells coming together for a specific function
Organ
Groups of tissues that come together to form an organ with a specific function
System
Groups of organs coming together working for a common function
Organismal
All 11 body systems working together
Gap Junctions
Protein tunnels in the plasma membrane allow small molecules to diffuse between adjacent cells, allowing for rapid communication
Tight Junctions
Made of many small globular proteins that stick together in a quit-like pattern and prevent molecules from passing between
Adherens Junction
Found in belts, anchored to the cytoplasm via microfilaments, allows things to pass through
Desmosomes
Scattered around the cell, found in plaques, anchored to the cytoplasm via microfilaments, this prevents the separation of cells. anchoring them together
Hemidesmosomes
Only half a desmosomes, found at the bottom of the cell, these anchor the cell to the basement membrane
Muscle Tissue
Cells that contract/shorten
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Attached to bones
Long cylindrical cells
Striated
Multinucleate
Voluntary Control
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Found in the heart
Branched cells
Connected by intercalated discs
Striated
Uninucleate
Involuntary control
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Found in hollow organs
Helps things move through
Tapered cells; thin on ends, thick middle
Uninucleate
Involuntary control
Nervous Tissue
Send and receive information
Neurons
Receive and transmit information
Dendrites
Receive the signal
Cell body
Process the signal
Axon
Sends signal away from cell body
Neuroglia
Supports and protects neurons
Epithelial Tissues
Densely pack and tightly connected layers of cells
Cover organs and line hollow space
Avascular
Attached to a basement membrane
Apical, basal, and lateral sides
Protection
Simple squamous epithelium
Cells are squished together
Single layer
Good for diffusion, filtration, and secretion
Found in air sacs in lungs, lining of kidneys, and lining the serous membrane
Simple cubodial epithelium
Single layer
Look like cubes
Good for secretion and absorption
Found in lining of glans and kidneys
Simple columnar epithelium
Tall cells
Single layer
Nuclei are lined up
Good for secretion and absorption
Often have cilia to help things move along
Found in digestive and respiratory tract
Stratified squamous epithelium
Multiple layers of cells
Look more squamous/irregular at the top
Good for protection
Found in mouth/esophagus, vagina, and skin
Stratified cubodial epithelium
Rare
Only two layers of cells
Double layer of nuclei
Good for protection and limited secretion
Found in ducts of some glands and male urethra
Stratified columnar epithelium
Rare
Only two layers of cells
Basal layer look irregular, top looks columnar
Good for protection and some secretion
Found in pharynx and urethra
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Fake layers
Cells are roughly columnar
All cells are attached to the basement membrane
Irregular shapes
Nuclei are located at random positions
Good for secreting mucus
Found in the upper respiratory tract
Transitional epithelium
For areas that expand and retract
Cells are irregular shapes in layers
Relaxed: more rounded
Stretched: flatter
Good for protection and stretching
Found in the bladder
Connective Tissues
Vascular
Sparse cells surrounded by extracellular matrix
Support, protect, and bind cells together
Extracellular matrix
Made of a group substance and protein fibers; found very abundantly in connective tissue
Ground Substance
Water with molecules that have been dissolved, can be solid, liquid, or semi-solid
Protein Fibers
Collagen, Reticular, Elastic
Collagen protein fibers
individual subunits of collagen, form polymers that stack on eachother, really strong
Reticular protein fibers
Individual units of collagen, multiple subunits that create branched networks, not as stong, create a ‘skeleton’
Elastic
Individual units of elastin, assemble into long chains, have a coil or wake-like structure, can be stretched and will recoil
Areolar loose connective tissue
All three types of protein fibers
Fibroblasts are present
Act as a packing material
Found all over the body
Adipose loose connective tissue
Few collagen fibers
Larger adipocytes that store fat
Act in energy storage, insulation, and cushion
Reticular loose connective Tissue
Lots of reticular fibers and reticulocytes
Form a mesh-like structure
Makes up reticular layer of basement membrane
Loose connective tissue
Protein fibers arranged loosely around cells
Dense connective tissue
Protein fibers arranged densely around cells
Regular dense connective tissue
Parallel collagen fibers
Fibroblasts are present
Strength in one direction
Make up ligaments and tendons
Irregular dense connective tissue
Randomly arranged collagen fibers
Fibroblasts are present
Strength in many direction
Found in the dermis of the skin
Elastic dense connective tissue
Many elastic fibers
Fibroblasts are present
Stretches and recoils
Found in elastic arteries such ad lunch tissues are surrounding the heart
Cartilage
Avascular
Gel-like ground substance
Lots of collagen and elastic fibers
Chondrocytes are present
Strong and flexible
Bone
Solid ground substance
Contains mineral salts
Lots of collagen fibers
Responsible for support and protection
Found in the skeleton
Liquid
Fluid ground substance
No protein fibers
Red and white blood cells
Responsible for transport
Anatomical position
A person standing with feet parallel, arms by side, and palms foward
Cranial Cavity
Enclosed by the skull, protects the brain
Vertebral Cavity
Space inside the vertebral column, contains the spinal cord
Thoracic Cavity
Located in your thorax, protects the heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic
Contains a lot of organs; digestive, reproductive, and urinary
Serous membrane
Lines the thoracic and abdominopelvic region
Double layer of epithelial
Secrete serous fluid in between layers to lubricate
Integumentary system
Organs: skin, hair, nails, and associated glans
Function: protection, immunity, regulate body temp
Skeletal system
Organs: bone, cartilage, joint
Function: support, protection, movement
Muscular system
Organs: skeletal muscles
Function: movement heat production
Nervous system
Organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, special sense organs
Function: detects changes in and out of body, create nerve impulses, communicate with other systems
Endocrine system
Organs: various hormone production organs
Function: regulation
Cardiovascular system
Organs: heart, blood vessels
Function: transport, regulate temp and water content, defense, tissue repair
Lymphatic system
Organs: lymph vessels, lymph nodes
Function: take up excess fluid, return fluid to blood, protection
Respiratory system
Organs: trachea, lungs
Function: gas exchange, sound production, protection
Digestive system
Organs: esophagus, stomach, intestines, rectum, anus, liver, and other accessories
Function: food breakdown, nutrient absorption, waste elimination
Urinary system
Organs: kidneys, bladder
Function: filters blood, waste elimination
Female reproductive system
Organs: ovaries, uterus, vagina
Function: release hormones, produce oocytes, copulation, development, birth
Male reproductive system
Organs: testes, glands, penis
Function: release hormones, produce sperm, copulation
Functions of skin
Thermoregulation
Blood reservoir
Protection
Sensation
Excreation
Absorption
Synthesis of vitamin D
Epidermis
Most superficial layer of skin
Made of stratified squamous epithelium
Avascular
Stratum basale
One layer
Basal stem cells that produce new keratinocytes
Melanocytes and sensory cells are found here
Stratum spinosum
8-10 layers
Keratinocytes that produce keratin filaments are here
Irregularly shaped cells
Immune cells are also found here
Stratum granulosum
3-5 layers
Keratinocytes that are secreting a waxy substance
Begin to undergo apoptosis
Stratum lucidum
4-6 layers
Only in thick skin
Stratum corneum
up to 50 layers of dead keratinocytes
Dermis
Underneath epidermis
Much thicker
Made of areolar and dense irregular connective tissue
Vascular
Accessory structures are found here
Papillary layer
20% of dermis
Contains dermal papillae that supply the epidermis with blood
Made of areolar connective tissue
Reticular layer
80% of the dermis
Made of sense irregular connective tissue
Lots of collagen fibers and fibroblasts
Accessory structures are found in this layer
Hypodermis
Not a layer or part of the skin
Connects skin to underlying muscle or bone
Made of adipose connective tissue
Hair shaft
Visible portion
Made of dead keratinized cells
Hair root
Hidden portion
Made of keratinizing cells
Hair follicle
Entire hair structure
Hair bulb
Region at the bottom where it becomes thicker
Hair matrix
Tip of the dermal papilla
Found in the bulb
Arrector pili
A band of smooth muscle, that attaches to the bulb and the superficial portion of the dermis
Hair root plexus
Sensory nerves that wrap around the hair bulb
Sebaceous glands
Oil glands
Open into hair follicles
Secrete sebum that prevents drying out and bacterial growth
Always found next to a hair follicle
Sudoriferous glands
Sweat glands
Eccrine sudoriferous gland
Duct opend directly to the surface
Found all over the body
Secrete water and salts
Made of coiled tubes
Mostly for thermal regulation
Apocrine sudoriferous glands
Ducts open into hair follicles
Coils of tubes
Only in axillary, pubic, and areolar region, secretes lipids and proteins
Thick skin
hairless
Contains a stratum lucidum
Many layers of the stratum corneum
No sebaceous and sudoriferous glands
Prominent dermal papillae
Thin skin
Hairy
no stratum lucidum
fewer layers of the stratum corneum
Contains sebaceous and sudoriferous glands
Epidermal wound healing
Occurs when damage happens to the epidermis
Basal cells migrate along the basement membrane toward the wound
Then divide to fill in the damage
Deep wound healing
Inflammatory phase: Blood clot forms
Migratory phase: The clot becomes a scab; cells migrate to fill in gap
Proliferatory phase: epithelia divides, fibroblasts build collagen
Maturation phase: things return to ‘normal’
1st degree burn
Damages the epidermis
Example: sunburn
2nd degree burn
Damages epidermis and dermis
Causes blisters
3rd degree burn
Damages goes all the way to subcutaneous layer
Basal cell carcinoma
Pretty common