Anatomy Exam 1

This is over the basics of A&P and the integumentary system

Anatomy

Study of structure and form

Physiology

Study of what the structure does and how it works

Homeostasis

Equilibrium of the body’s internal environment; always being challenged so it is constantly adjusting

Levels of structural organization

1. Chemical
2. Cellular
3. Tissue
4. Organ
5. System
6. Organismal

Chemical

Atoms that come together to form molecules

Cellular

Molecules coming together to form cells

Tissue

Cells coming together for a specific function

Organ

Groups of tissues that come together to form an organ with a specific function

System

Groups of organs coming together working for a common function

Organismal

All 11 body systems working together

Gap Junctions

Protein tunnels in the plasma membrane allow small molecules to diffuse between adjacent cells, allowing for rapid communication

Tight Junctions

Made of many small globular proteins that stick together in a quit-like pattern and prevent molecules from passing between

Adherens Junction

Found in belts, anchored to the cytoplasm via microfilaments, allows things to pass through

Desmosomes

Scattered around the cell, found in plaques, anchored to the cytoplasm via microfilaments, this prevents the separation of cells. anchoring them together

Hemidesmosomes

Only half a desmosomes, found at the bottom of the cell, these anchor the cell to the basement membrane

Muscle Tissue

Cells that contract/shorten

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Attached to bones

Long cylindrical cells

Striated

Multinucleate

Voluntary Control

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Found in the heart

Branched cells

Connected by intercalated discs

Striated

Uninucleate

Involuntary control

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Found in hollow organs

Helps things move through

Tapered cells; thin on ends, thick middle

Uninucleate

Involuntary control

Nervous Tissue

Send and receive information

Neurons

Receive and transmit information

Dendrites

Receive the signal

Cell body

Process the signal

Axon

Sends signal away from cell body

Neuroglia

Supports and protects neurons

Epithelial Tissues

Densely pack and tightly connected layers of cells

Cover organs and line hollow space

Avascular

Attached to a basement membrane

Apical, basal, and lateral sides

Protection

Simple squamous epithelium

Cells are squished together

Single layer

Good for diffusion, filtration, and secretion

Found in air sacs in lungs, lining of kidneys, and lining the serous membrane

Simple cubodial epithelium

Single layer

Look like cubes

Good for secretion and absorption

Found in lining of glans and kidneys

Simple columnar epithelium

Tall cells

Single layer

Nuclei are lined up

Good for secretion and absorption

Often have cilia to help things move along

Found in digestive and respiratory tract

Stratified squamous epithelium

Multiple layers of cells

Look more squamous/irregular at the top

Good for protection

Found in mouth/esophagus, vagina, and skin

Stratified cubodial epithelium

Rare

Only two layers of cells

Double layer of nuclei

Good for protection and limited secretion

Found in ducts of some glands and male urethra

Stratified columnar epithelium

Rare

Only two layers of cells

Basal layer look irregular, top looks columnar

Good for protection and some secretion

Found in pharynx and urethra

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Fake layers

Cells are roughly columnar

All cells are attached to the basement membrane

Irregular shapes

Nuclei are located at random positions

Good for secreting mucus

Found in the upper respiratory tract

Transitional epithelium

For areas that expand and retract

Cells are irregular shapes in layers

Relaxed: more rounded

Stretched: flatter

Good for protection and stretching

Found in the bladder

Connective Tissues

Vascular

Sparse cells surrounded by extracellular matrix

Support, protect, and bind cells together

Extracellular matrix

Made of a group substance and protein fibers; found very abundantly in connective tissue

Ground Substance

Water with molecules that have been dissolved, can be solid, liquid, or semi-solid

Protein Fibers

Collagen, Reticular, Elastic

Collagen protein fibers

individual subunits of collagen, form polymers that stack on eachother, really strong

Reticular protein fibers

Individual units of collagen, multiple subunits that create branched networks, not as stong, create a ‘skeleton’

Elastic

Individual units of elastin, assemble into long chains, have a coil or wake-like structure, can be stretched and will recoil

Areolar loose connective tissue

All three types of protein fibers

Fibroblasts are present

Act as a packing material

Found all over the body

Adipose loose connective tissue

Few collagen fibers

Larger adipocytes that store fat

Act in energy storage, insulation, and cushion

Reticular loose connective Tissue

Lots of reticular fibers and reticulocytes

Form a mesh-like structure

Makes up reticular layer of basement membrane

Loose connective tissue

Protein fibers arranged loosely around cells

Dense connective tissue

Protein fibers arranged densely around cells

Regular dense connective tissue

Parallel collagen fibers

Fibroblasts are present

Strength in one direction

Make up ligaments and tendons

Irregular dense connective tissue

Randomly arranged collagen fibers

Fibroblasts are present

Strength in many direction

Found in the dermis of the skin

Elastic dense connective tissue

Many elastic fibers

Fibroblasts are present

Stretches and recoils

Found in elastic arteries such ad lunch tissues are surrounding the heart

Cartilage

Avascular

Gel-like ground substance

Lots of collagen and elastic fibers

Chondrocytes are present

Strong and flexible

Bone

Solid ground substance

Contains mineral salts

Lots of collagen fibers

Responsible for support and protection

Found in the skeleton

Liquid

Fluid ground substance

No protein fibers

Red and white blood cells

Responsible for transport

Anatomical position

A person standing with feet parallel, arms by side, and palms foward

Cranial Cavity

Enclosed by the skull, protects the brain

Vertebral Cavity

Space inside the vertebral column, contains the spinal cord

Thoracic Cavity

Located in your thorax, protects the heart and lungs

Abdominopelvic

Contains a lot of organs; digestive, reproductive, and urinary

Serous membrane

Lines the thoracic and abdominopelvic region

Double layer of epithelial

Secrete serous fluid in between layers to lubricate

Integumentary system

Organs: skin, hair, nails, and associated glans

Function: protection, immunity, regulate body temp

Skeletal system

Organs: bone, cartilage, joint

Function: support, protection, movement

Muscular system

Organs: skeletal muscles

Function: movement heat production

Nervous system

Organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, special sense organs

Function: detects changes in and out of body, create nerve impulses, communicate with other systems

Endocrine system

Organs: various hormone production organs

Function: regulation

Cardiovascular system

Organs: heart, blood vessels

Function: transport, regulate temp and water content, defense, tissue repair

Lymphatic system

Organs: lymph vessels, lymph nodes

Function: take up excess fluid, return fluid to blood, protection

Respiratory system

Organs: trachea, lungs

Function: gas exchange, sound production, protection

Digestive system

Organs: esophagus, stomach, intestines, rectum, anus, liver, and other accessories

Function: food breakdown, nutrient absorption, waste elimination

Urinary system

Organs: kidneys, bladder

Function: filters blood, waste elimination

Female reproductive system

Organs: ovaries, uterus, vagina

Function: release hormones, produce oocytes, copulation, development, birth

Male reproductive system

Organs: testes, glands, penis

Function: release hormones, produce sperm, copulation

Functions of skin

Thermoregulation

Blood reservoir

Protection

Sensation

Excreation

Absorption

Synthesis of vitamin D

Epidermis

Most superficial layer of skin

Made of stratified squamous epithelium

Avascular

Stratum basale

One layer

Basal stem cells that produce new keratinocytes

Melanocytes and sensory cells are found here

Stratum spinosum

8-10 layers

Keratinocytes that produce keratin filaments are here

Irregularly shaped cells

Immune cells are also found here

Stratum granulosum

3-5 layers

Keratinocytes that are secreting a waxy substance

Begin to undergo apoptosis

Stratum lucidum

4-6 layers

Only in thick skin

Stratum corneum

up to 50 layers of dead keratinocytes

Dermis

Underneath epidermis

Much thicker

Made of areolar and dense irregular connective tissue

Vascular

Accessory structures are found here

Papillary layer

20% of dermis

Contains dermal papillae that supply the epidermis with blood

Made of areolar connective tissue

Reticular layer

80% of the dermis

Made of sense irregular connective tissue

Lots of collagen fibers and fibroblasts

Accessory structures are found in this layer

Hypodermis

Not a layer or part of the skin

Connects skin to underlying muscle or bone

Made of adipose connective tissue

Hair shaft

Visible portion

Made of dead keratinized cells

Hair root

Hidden portion

Made of keratinizing cells

Hair follicle

Entire hair structure

Hair bulb

Region at the bottom where it becomes thicker

Hair matrix

Tip of the dermal papilla

Found in the bulb

Arrector pili

A band of smooth muscle, that attaches to the bulb and the superficial portion of the dermis

Hair root plexus

Sensory nerves that wrap around the hair bulb

Sebaceous glands

Oil glands

Open into hair follicles

Secrete sebum that prevents drying out and bacterial growth

Always found next to a hair follicle

Sudoriferous glands

Sweat glands

Eccrine sudoriferous gland

Duct opend directly to the surface

Found all over the body

Secrete water and salts

Made of coiled tubes

Mostly for thermal regulation

Apocrine sudoriferous glands

Ducts open into hair follicles

Coils of tubes

Only in axillary, pubic, and areolar region, secretes lipids and proteins

Thick skin

hairless

Contains a stratum lucidum

Many layers of the stratum corneum

No sebaceous and sudoriferous glands

Prominent dermal papillae

Thin skin

Hairy

no stratum lucidum

fewer layers of the stratum corneum

Contains sebaceous and sudoriferous glands

Epidermal wound healing

Occurs when damage happens to the epidermis

Basal cells migrate along the basement membrane toward the wound

Then divide to fill in the damage

Deep wound healing

Inflammatory phase: Blood clot forms

Migratory phase: The clot becomes a scab; cells migrate to fill in gap

Proliferatory phase: epithelia divides, fibroblasts build collagen

Maturation phase: things return to ‘normal’

1st degree burn

Damages the epidermis

Example: sunburn

2nd degree burn

Damages epidermis and dermis

Causes blisters

3rd degree burn

Damages goes all the way to subcutaneous layer

Basal cell carcinoma

Pretty common