C - Ethical egoism

What type of ethic is ethical egoism, what does it suggest?

• Ethical Egoism is a normative ethic (an attempt to give moral agents a guide (norm) to what is right and what is wrong) and in this theory a person ought to pursue only their own self-interest.

• This means a person’s duty is only to themselves and no one else.

• When a moral agent is faced with a moral dilemma, they ought to do what is in their own self-interest i.e. what is best for themselves.

How does ethical egoism work? + keyquote

• An ethical egoist believes if an action creates a beneficial outcome for the moral agent then this can be considered ethically good. 

• For example, if a student was faced with the moral dilemma of telling the truth or lying to a teacher, about a missed piece of homework, Ethical Egoism would guide the student to do the action whose outcome is in the best interests of the student.

• As Julia Driver states: “Ethical Egoism … holds that all actions ought to be motivated by self-interest.”  

• The only obligation an Ethical Egoist has is to themselves and any action that upholds this principle is deemed acceptable.

• William Frankena argues: “Ethical egoists may hold any kind of theory of what is good and what is bad for their welfare.”      

• There is no reliance on any divine authority as a source for morality instead morality is defined in terms of self-interest. 

What is altruism?

• Contrast with altruism

• The contrasting ethical position to ethical egoism is altruism.

• Altruism holds that moral agents have an obligation to help others.  

• Altruism states a moral agent should always try to positively impact other individuals, regardless of the outcomes for the moral agent.

• e.g. when deciding whether to potential sacrifice our life by running into a burning building to save a group of trapped people, altruism would encourage the moral agent to only consider the benefit to others (saving the trapped people) regardless of our own individual safety.  

But, how do ethical egoists consider altruistic actions as being?

• Contrst with altruism

• However (rather ironically) Ethical Egoists would consider altruistic actions as ultimately egotistic in nature. 

• This is because, whether we are aware of it or not, when we carry out altruistic actions we are doing it for self-gain. 

• For example, I may give money to a homeless person, but I am only doing it for some self-gain such as: to make myself feel like a better person, impress a friend etc. 

What is a key quote from Richard Norman to demonstrate altruism being egoistic in nature?

• Contrast with altruism

• “In caring for other people, I do so because I think it will make my own life happier; it is not really a concern for others which motivates me, but a concern for myself. ”  

Why do followers of ethical egoism believe altruism is destructive?

• Contrast with altruism

• If the above is true, there is no such thing as an altruistic act. 

• Followers of ethical egoism believe altruism is destructive because it treats an individual’s life as a disposable commodity.  

• Altruism demands humans sacrifice for the good of others, this idea devalues humans and therefore egoism is the only way to ensure your life is valued and taken seriously.  

What is the psychological term for the study of egoism called, what is this?

• Matches Human Psychological Needs

• The psychological terms for the study of egoism is ‘Psychological Egoism’. 

• Psychological Egoism is the view that humans are always motivated by self-interest. Therefore, Ethical Egoism is the ideal normative ethic to follow because it supports our natural psychological state (Psychological Egoism).   

• Psychological egoism supports the view when actions are performed in accordance with our own desires, they are morally correct (because we cannot act in any other way). 

What is the difference between ‘psychological egoism’ and ‘ethical egoism’?

• Matches Human Psychological Needs

• The difference between ‘Psychological Egoism’ and ‘Ethical Egoism’ is that Psychological Egoism is a theory of human nature and argues that egoism is our natural state. 

• Whereas Ethical Egoism is a theory that states moral agents should act upon their egoistic nature. 

• Psychological egoism supports the view when actions are performed in accordance with our own desires, they are morally correct (because we cannot act in any other way). 

What is the distinction between Long term and short term interests?

• Long term interests rather than short term interests

• Ethical Egoism does not necessarily always entail the moral agent pursuing short term self-interests e.g. I’ll miss all my lessons at college because I enjoy lazing around at home more.  

• This is because the ethical egoist needs to also consider long term self-interests.

• The fulfilment of short-term desires may prove detrimental to the long term self.

• E.g. because I missed all my lessons at college, I failed my A-levels and now I have a ‘boring/poorly paid job’.  

• Therefore, short-lived pleasure takes a back seat to longer term aims that benefit the moral agent. 

What is a key quote from James Rachels that supports long term interests over short term interests?

• Long term interest rather than short term interests

• "Ethical Egoism endorses selfishness, but it doesn't endorse foolishness." 

What is an example of businesses taking a long term ethical egoist view?

• Long term interest rather than short term interests

• Many businesses take a long-term Ethical Egoist view. 

• For example, supermarkets know that they could make higher short-term profits from sacking all their customer services employees (saving £1000’s in wages).

• But this would affect long term profits as customers would gradually drift away to rival supermarkets because of poor customer service.

• I.e. they take care of customers because it is in their own long-term self-interest to do so.  

How can following rules be in an egoist’s long-term self interest?

• Long term interest rather than short term interests

• Following rules can be in an egoist’s long-term self-interest.

• To abide by rules that forbid us from harming others is helpful in the long-term because other people are less likely to harm us.

• The Golden Rule of treating others as you would like to be treated yourself is also motivated by long-term self-interest, be kind to others will be benefit you in the long-term and others will be kind to you. 

Who is Max Stirner?

• Max Stirner (1806-1856) was a German Philosopher who is seen as one of the forerunners of Ethical Egoism.

• His main work on egoism was in his book: ‘The Ego and Its Own’. 

What does Stirner say about self-interest being the root cause of an individuals every moral action? + Key quote

• All of our ations should be done for self-interest

• Stirner agrees with the general Ethical Egoist ethos that self-interest should be the root cause of an individual's every moral action. 

• He states: "I am everything to myself and I do everything on my account."  

• Though the above statement may come across as quite cruel it is not necessarily as bad as it first seems when you read the rest of his theory. 

What does Stirner say about all individuals being unique? + key quote

• We are all unique

• Stirner justifies the above by claiming all individuals are unique (have their own unique Ego).  

• The reason we should only act in our own self-interest is because any attempt to satisfy the needs of others restricts (and thus is denying) our own uniqueness. 

• He uses a German word ‘einzige’ to illustrate this, which means ‘only one’

• i.e. you are a unique individual; there is only one of you and therefore you have an unique ego (true self)  

• Therefore, individuals, in order to maximise their uniqueness, must concentrate all their actions purely on themselves.

• We must treat ourselves as the ‘highest being’. 

• As Stirner states: “Egoism does not think of sacrificing anything, giving away anything that it wants; it simply decides what I want.” 

What do we have to recognise in order to develop our own uniqueness?

• Rejection of moral ethics and the conscience

• In order to develop our own uniqueness (our own ego) Stirner calls for human beings to recognise our ‘enslavement’ to moral obligations and duties imposed by others or by a moral framework (such as Divine Command Theory).   

So, what does Stirner call for the rejection of, which types in particular?

• Rejection of moral ethics and the conscience

• Therefore, Stirner calls for the rejection of all ethical frameworks particularly religious ones (such as Divine Command Theory), because they impose a moral framework onto us that is not our own and thus restricts (enslaves) our own ego. 

What is a key quote from Stirner that shows his rejection of religion?

• Rejection of moral ethics and the conscience

• ‘‘The religious way of thinking has biased our mind so grievously that we are terrified of ourselves.”

• What he means by this is that religious ethics have stopped us being true to our own ego (to be our true selves). 

What is the conscience and why does Stirner reject it?

• Rejection of moral ethics and the conscience

• Stirner goes further and even rejects our conscience i.e. the sub-conscious thoughts that guide our moral actions or the inner thoughts that tell us, for example, to be kind or generous.

• Even these, Stirner argues, are no more than an internalised set of moral values imposed on us by society. 

• Therefore, they are not a reflection of our true unique ego. 

So, for Stirner what is the only way to develop our own uniqueness? + key quote

• Rejection of moral ethics and the conscience

• Therefore, for Stirner, the only way to develop our own uniqueness (into our true self) is to reject all outside moral influences.

• Instead, we must concentrate purely on ourselves (what our ego/true selves want); by developing our own unique sense of morality based purely upon our own unique ego. 

• As Stirner states: “I decide whether it is the right thing in me; there is no right outside of me.”  

What does the focus on material gain do?

• Rejection of material gain

• Stirner’s egoism can be seen as purely about material gain (greed) i.e. building up lots of personal wealth (money and possessions).  

• Though Stirner concedes that material gain can be part of an individual’s personal ego, it is just one part of the ego and to spend one's life pursuing only that part of our ego is to deny all other parts of our ego e.g. self-development, unique skills etc. 

What did Stirner call the pursuit of material gain?

• Rejection of material gain

• ‘‘One sided, narrow egoism’’

What did Stirner argue the excessive concentration on material gain would do to a moral agent?

• Rejection of material gain

• In fact, Stirner argued that excessive concentration on material gain/greed (or in fact any other desire like lust etc) would just enslave the moral agent in the same way that following a moral ethic (Divine Command Theory) would. 

• This is because the agent would just become a slave to capitalism, always trying to improve their bank balance at the sacrifice of developing and satisfying their own unique ego.   

• Stirner values ‘ownness’ as the most important good, which is superior to everything else and is completely incompatible with any obligation/duty to anyone else or anything else.  

What is the union of egoists?

• Union of egoists

• Stirner ends his theory on Ethical Egoism by considering the idea of ‘Union of Egoists’. 

• The Union of Egoists is Stirner’s alternative way of organising modern society but on egoist principles.   

• People would unite in ‘unions’ based on 3 principles.

What are the 3 principles that people would unite in ‘unions’ based on?

• Union of egoists

1. Free agreement (members cannot be forced to join a particular union).

2. Equality of all members (they do not involve the subordination of the individual i.e. no one can tell another member what to believe or think) 

3. Mutual self-interest of those involved (the union exists purely to help each individual in the union to achieve their own unique goals).  

Why do unions exist?

• Union of egoists

• Therefore, unions would exist to ensure they maximise an individual's own ego, as well as ensuring that those involved sacrifice nothing of themselves. 

• A type of ‘Union of Egoists’ could be a marriage.

• However, only as long as it was based on personal gain for each member i.e. it helped both members to develop and satisfy their own unique ego. 

• Once one of the people in the union (marriage) felt that the union involved sacrificing their own ego, they should and could just walk away from it. 

When should someone leave a union, what is this called?

• Union of egoists

• People should form a union of egoist without losing their autonomy, for example going out for a drink with a friend not out of duty but just to have fun.

• As soon as any union becomes binding/an obligation/does not please me it becomes a dead union.

What are the strengths of ethical egoism?

• Supported by psychological egoism.  

• Self-interest is at the heart of all moral actions, and these give us positive feelings (even following religious commands are driven by self-interest – reward in the afterlife). 

• Rejects material gain. 

• Allows us to be autonomous/unique beings and not restricted by duty/commands. 

• Looks at long-term interests as opposed to short term interests. 

What is the challenge to ethical egoism in terms of - Destruction of Community Ethos?

• It can be argued Ethical Egoism will inevitably lead to the destruction of a community ethos. 

• A community ethos can be seen as a group of people working together for the greater good of their community.

• For example, a homeless charity that helps those less fortunate within a community.  

• Ethical Egoism could diminish a community ethos, because moral agents will instead concentrate upon their own self-interests and thus potentially ignore community needs which rely on altruism. 

• Ethical egoism leads to a breakdown of trust and lack of mutual regard for other members of the community as the community spirit of helping others, keeping promises etc are no longer valuable. 

What is the challenge to ethical egoism in terms of - Social Injustices?

• Ethical Egoism encourages the pursuit of an individual’s own interests.

• However, an individual’s pursuit of their own self-interest could lead to other individuals suffering. 

• For example, a particular egoist’s pursuit could be for the selfish accumulation of money.

• However, there is only a limited amount of money within a society, therefore, as one individual accumulates money it means other individuals have less.   

• There is no reason to protect the interests of the weak, poor, minority, vulnerable if individuals only serve their own interest.  

What is the challenge to ethical egoism in terms of - Ethical Egoism as a form of bigotry?

• It can be argued Ethical Egoism encourages bigotry. 

• A bigot is a prejudiced person, especially one who is intolerant towards different groups of people i.e. different racial, sexual or cultural groups. 

• Bigots tend to believe their group is superior to other groups of people, therefore they divide other people into themselves (like-minded people) and others (people not like them).    

• Ethical Egoism can be seen as a form of bigotry because it also divides people into ‘me’ and ‘everyone else’ (who I can use for my own pleasure).

• This can lead to discrimination against ‘the others’ on the basis of this disparity.  

• Ethical egoism puts one’s interests before others which leads to segregation and stereotypes, as the ‘me’ takes priority.