psychology exam 2 prep

Pavlov

Classical Conditioning

Skinner

Operant Conditioning

Bandura

Observational Learning

Piaget

Cognitive Development

Freud

Psychosexual Development

Erikson

Psychosocial Development

Kohlberg

Moral Development

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between two stimuli

Operant Conditioning

Learning through rewards and punishments

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others

Acquisition

Initial learning in classical conditioning

Extinction

Learned response weakens or disappears

Spontaneous Recovery

Extinguished response returns after time

Stimulus Generalization

Responding to similar stimuli

Stimulus Discrimination

Responding only to a specific stimulus

Positive Reinforcement

Add something pleasant to increase behavior

Negative Reinforcement

Remove something unpleasant to increase behavior

Positive Punishment

Add something unpleasant to decrease behavior

Negative Punishment

Remove something pleasant to decrease behavior

Fixed Ratio

Reward after a set number of responses

Variable Ratio

Reward after an unpredictable number of responses like gambling

Fixed Interval

Reward after a fixed amount of time

Variable Interval

Reward after unpredictable amounts of time like pop quizzes

Vicarious Reinforcement

Seeing someone rewarded and copying the behavior

Vicarious Punishment

Seeing someone punished and avoiding the behavior

Instinct

Inborn behavior like bird migration

Reflex

Automatic response like blinking

Encoding

Getting information into memory

Storage

Keeping information in memory

Retrieval

Accessing stored memories

Sensory Memory

Very brief memory from the senses

Short-Term Memory

Holds limited information for about 15 to 30 seconds

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent memory storage

Semantic Memory

Memory for facts and knowledge

Episodic Memory

Memory for personal experiences

Implicit Memory

Memory for skills and habits

Recall

Retrieving information without cues like an essay test

Recognition

Identifying the correct answer like multiple choice

Relearning

Learning something again faster than the first time

Encoding Failure

Information was never stored

Retrieval Failure

Information cannot be accessed

Misinformation Effect

False memories caused by misleading information

Schema

Mental framework for organizing information

Prototype

Best example of a category

Natural Concept

Concept learned through experience

Algorithm

Step-by-step method that guarantees a solution

Heuristic

Mental shortcut that is faster but may be wrong

Confirmation Bias

Looking for evidence that supports existing beliefs

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

Hindsight Bias

Believing you knew the outcome all along

Overconfidence Bias

Being more confident than correct

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to solve new problems

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge gained from experience

Amygdala

Processes fear and emotion

Hippocampus

Forms new long-term memories

Prefrontal Cortex

Decision making planning and reasoning

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination

Nature vs Nurture

Genetics versus environment

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth to 2 years object permanence develops

Preoperational Stage

Ages 2 to 7 egocentrism and no conservation

Concrete Operational Stage

Ages 7 to 11 logical thinking and conservation

Formal Operational Stage

Age 12 and older abstract thinking

Assimilation

Adding new information to an existing schema

Accommodation

Changing a schema to fit new information

Theory of Mind

Understanding others have different thoughts and beliefs

Object Permanence

Knowing objects exist even when out of sight

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing another person's perspective

Conservation

Understanding quantity stays the same despite appearance changes

Freud's Stages

Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital

Erikson's Stages

Trust Autonomy Initiative Industry Identity Intimacy Generativity Integrity

Preconventional Morality

Behavior based on punishment and rewards

Conventional Morality

Behavior based on following rules and social approval

Postconventional Morality

Behavior based on personal ethics and principles

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth and high expectations

Authoritarian Parenting

Strict with little warmth

Permissive Parenting

Very warm with few rules

Uninvolved Parenting

Low warmth and low expectations

Secure Attachment

Healthy attachment with caregiver

Avoidant Attachment

Avoids closeness with caregiver

Resistant Attachment

Clingy but resistant to comfort

Disorganized Attachment

Often associated with abuse or frightening caregiving

Essay Test

Recall

Multiple Choice Test

Recognition

Lottery or Slot Machine

Variable Ratio

Weekly Paycheck

Fixed Interval

Pop Quiz

Variable Interval

Punch Card

Fixed Ratio

First Day of School

Episodic Memory

Knowing January is the first month

Semantic Memory

Rainbow

Natural Concept

Fear

Amygdala

New Memories

Hippocampu