American Politics Exam 3

Public Opinion

the collective attitudes and beliefs of individuals on one or more issues

Public Opinion Polls

scientific efforts to estimate what an entire group thinks about an issue by asking a smaller sample of the group for its opinion

Political Socialization

the process by which we learn our political orientations and allegiances

Patriotism

a strong emotional attachment to one’s political community

Spiral of Silence

the process by which a majority opinion becomes exaggerated because minorities do not feel comfortable speaking out in opposition

Gender Gap

the tendency of men and women to differ in their political views on some issues

marriage gap

the tendency of married and unmarried people to differ in their political views on some issues

political generations

groups of citizens whose political views have been shaped by the common events of their youth

Partisan sorting

the process through which citizens align themselves ideologically with one of the two parties, leaving fewer citizens remaining in the center and increasing party polarization

sample

the portion of the population that is selected to participate in a poll

sample bias

the effect of having a sample that does not represent all segments of the population

Straw polls

polls that attempt to determine who is ahead in a political race

sampling error

a number that indicates within what range the results of a poll are accurate

random samples

samples chosen in such a way that any member of the population being polled has an equal chance of being selected

nonresponse bias

a skewing of data that occurs when there is a difference in opinion between those who choose to participate and those who do not

weighting

adjustments to surveys during analysis so that selected demographic groups reflect their values in the population, usually as measured by the census

benchmark polls

an initial poll on a candidate and issues on which campaign strategy is based and against which later polls are compared

tracking polls

an ongoing series of surveys that follow changes in public opinion over time

exit polls

election-related questions asked of voters right after they vote

push poll

polls that ask for reactions to hypothetical, often false, information in order to manipulate public opinion

political gridlock

the stalemate that occurs when political rivals, especially parties, refuse to budge from their positions to achieve a compromise in the public interest

Party machines

mass-based party systems in which parties provided services and resources to voters in exchange for votes

party bosses

party leaders, usually in an urban district, who exercised tight control over electioneering and patronage

patronage

a system in which a successful candidate rewards friends, contributors, and party loyalists for their support with jobs, contracts, and favors

party primary

an election in which party candidates are nominated by registered party members rather than party bosses

party eras

extended periods of relative political stability in which one party tends to control both the presidency and Congress

critical election

an election signaling a significant change in popular allegiance from one party to another

realignment

a substantial and long-term shift in party allegiance by individuals and groups, usually resulting in a change in policy direction

dealignment

a trend among voters to identify themselves as independents rather than as members of a major party

electioneering

the process of getting a person elected to public office

nominating convention

the formal party gathering to choose candidates

soft money

unregulated campaign contributions by individuals, groups, or parties that promote general election activities but do not directly support individual candidates

governing

activities directed toward controlling the distribution of political resources by providing executive and legislative leadership, enacting agendas, mobilizing support, and building coalitions

party-discipline

the ability of party leaders to bring party members in the legislature into line with the party program

open primary

a primary election in which eligible voters need not be registered party members

closed primary

a primary election in which only registered party members may vote

political efficacy

citizens’ feelings of effectiveness in political affairs

regulating the electorate

the process of setting rules that define who can vote and how difficult or easy it will be to cast a ballot in an election

motor voter act

legislation allowing citizens to register to vote at the same time they apply for a driver’s license or other state benefit

voter mobilization

a party’s efforts to inform potential voters about issues and candidates and to persuade them to vote

social connectedness

citizens’ involvement in groups and their relationships to their communities and families

prospective voting

basing voting decisions on well-informed opinions and consideration of the future consequences of a given vote

retrospective voting

basing voting decisions on reactions to past performance; approving the status quo or a desire for change

invisible primary

early attempts to raise money, line up campaign consultants, generate media attention, and get commitments for support even before candidates announce they are running

exploratory committee

a committee formed to determine the viability of one’s candidacy for office; activities may include polling, travel, and other communications relevant to the purpose

caucas

a local gathering of party members to choose convention delegates

presidential primary

an election by which voters choose convention delegates committed to voting for a certain candidate

front-loading

the process of scheduling presidential primaries early in the primary season

front-runner

the leading candidate and expected winner of a nomination or an election

swing voters

the approximately one-third of the electorate who are undecided at the start of a campaign

oppo research

investigation of an opponent’s background for the purpose of exploiting weaknesses or undermining credibility

valence issues

issues on which most voters and candidates share the same position

position issues

issues on which the parties differ in their perspectives and proposed solutions

wedge issue

a controversial issue that one party uses to split the voters in the other party

issue ownership

the tendency of one party to be seen as more competent in a specific policy area

negative advertising

campaign advertising that emphasizes the negative characteristics of opponents rather than one’s own strengths

government matching funds

money given by the federal government to qualified presidential candidates in the primary and general election campaigns

hard money

campaign funds donated directly to candidates; amounts are limited by federal election laws

issue advocacy ads

advertisements paid for by soft money, and thus not regulated, that promote certain issue positions but do not endorse specific candidates

get-out-the-vote drives

efforts by political parties, interest groups, and the candidate’s staff to maximize voter turnout among supporters

electoral mandate

the perception that an election victory signals broad support for the winner’s proposed policies

momentum

the widely held public perception that a candidate is gaining electoral strength

mass media

the means of conveying information to large public audiences cheaply and efficiently.

media convergence

the merging of traditional media with digital communication technologies such as telecommunications and the Internet.

narrowcasting

the targeting of specialized audiences by the media.

news organizations

businesses (and occasionally nonprofits) devoted to reporting and disseminating news via print, broadcast, or digital media—or a multimedia combination.

news aggregators

websites, applications, and software that cull content from other digital sources.

gatekeepers

journalists and the media elite who determine which news stories are covered and which are not.

commercial bias

the tendency of the media to make coverage and programming decisions based on what will attract a large audience and maximize profits.

clickbait

sensational headlines designed to tempt Internet users to click through to a specific website.

revolving door

the tendency of public officials, journalists, and lobbyists to move between public- and private-sector (media, lobbying) jobs

pundit

a professional observer and commentator on politics.

agenda setting

the media’s role in defining the relative importance of an issue or event via the amount and prominence of coverage they devote to it.

framing

the process through which the media emphasize particular aspects of a news story, thereby influencing the public’s perception of the story.

horse-race journalism

the media’s focus on the competitive aspects of politics rather than on actual policy proposals and political decisions.

optics

the way a situation, person, or event is presented by the media and perceived by the public.

sound bite

a brief, snappy excerpt from a public figure’s speech that is easy to repeat on the news.

feeding frenzy

excessive press coverage of an embarrassing or scandalous subject.

disinformation

the purposeful dissemination of falsehoods about public people or events.

selective perception

the phenomenon of filtering incoming information through personal values and interests.

permanent campaign

the idea that governing requires a continual effort to convince the public to sign on to the program, requiring a reliance on consultants and an emphasis on politics over policy.

news management

the efforts of a politician’s staff to control news about the politician.

spin

an interpretation of a politician’s words or actions, designed to present a favorable image.

leaks

confidential information secretly revealed to the press.

trial balloon

an official leak of a proposal to determine public reaction to it without risk.

political accountability

the democratic principle that political leaders must answer to the public for their actions.

citizen journalism

reporting and commentary by everyday citizens unaffiliated with traditional media outlets, and distributed via the web in the form of blogs, podcasts, or video uploads.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

national civil rights legislation aimed at eliminating racial discrimination in the electoral process

political party

a group of citizens united by ideology and seeking control of government in order to promote their ideas and policies

partisanship

loyalty to a party that helps shape how members see the world, define problems, and identify appropriate solutions

party organization

the official structure that conducts the political business of parties

party-in-government

party members who have been elected to serve in government

party-in-the-electorate

ordinary citizens who identify with the party

party identification

voter affiliation with a political party

party base

members of a political party who consistently vote for that party’s candidates

responsible party model

party government when four conditions are met: clear choice of ideologies, candidates pledged to implement ideas, party held accountable by voters, and party control over members

partisan sorting

the process through which citizens align themselves ideologically with one of the two parties, leaving fewer citizens remaining in the center and increasing party polarization

rational ignorance

the state of being uninformed about politics because of the cost in time and energy

on-line processing

the ability to receive and evaluate information as events happen, allowing us to remember our evaluation even if we have forgotten the specific events that caused it

two-step flow of information

the process by which citizens take their political cues from more well-informed opinion leaders