psychology mid term 2025 T4

Measurement Definition

How psychologists collect and quantify data to test hypotheses or describe behaviour.

Measurement Example

Using a questionnaire to assess stress levels; a reaction-time test for cognitive processing.

Measurement - how to discuss

Discuss reliability and validity; mention whether the measure is qualitative or quantitative.

Bias definition

Any systematic error that can affect the results of a study.

Bias example

Sampling bias: choosing only students from one school

participant bias: trying to please the researcher.

Researcher Bias: researcher's expectations or beliefs influence the results or interpretation of a study.

bias how to apply

Identify potential biases in research; suggest ways to minimize them (e.g., random sampling, blind or double-blind designs).

causality definition

The extent to which one variable directly causes changes in another.

Causality Example

Reducing social media use causing lower anxiety levels in teens.

causality how to apply

Look for experimental manipulation and control; mention limitations if causality cannot be fully established.

responsibility definition

The ethical and professional duties of psychologists to protect participants and society.

responsibility example

Ensuring informed consent, safety during high-intensity sports tests, confidentiality of personal data.

responsibility how to apply

Always link ethical safeguards to the study; consider both participant and societal impact.

ethics all ethic all ethic yay!! :D

change definition

How behaviour, mental processes, or social patterns vary over time or across situations.

change example

Memory improving with practice; attitudes changing after cultural exposure.

change how to apply

Discuss longitudinal vs. cross-sectional studies; note developmental or environmental influences.

perspective definition

The theoretical viewpoint or lens through which behaviour is understood.

perspective example

Biological perspective: hormones influence stress;

Cognitive perspective: thought patterns influence memory.

Sociocultural perspective: environment, cultural background socioeconomic status, risk versus protective factors

perspective how to apply

Identify which perspective a study uses; compare how different perspectives explain the same behaviour.

validity definition

The extent to which a study or measure accurately measures what it claims to measure.

validity examples/types

Internal: Controlled variables; cause-and-effect can be inferred (e.g., lab experiment).Ecological: Findings apply to real-world settings (e.g., field study).Construct: Measures accurately reflect the concept (e.g., stress scale truly measures stress).

validity how to apply

Discuss internal (was the study well-controlled?) and external validity (can it be generalized?).

Reliability - definition

The consistency or repeatability of a study or measurement over time.

Reliability - types

Test-retest: Results are similar when repeated.

Inter-rater: Different researchers get similar results.

Internal consistency: Items within a test produce similar results.

Reliability - exam tips

Mention test-retest, inter-rater, or internal consistency.

Credibility - definition

The degree to which qualitative research findings are believable and trustworthy.

Credibility - example

Example: Checking findings with participants (member checking); prolonged engagement or peer debriefing.

Credibility - how to apply

Often used in qualitative studies; can link to triangulation.

Triangulation - definition

Using multiple methods, data sources, or researchers to increase credibility or validity.

Triangulation - types

Researcher: More than one researcher analyses data to reduce bias.

Method: Combining interviews, observations, and

questionnaires.

Data: Collecting data from multiple participants or contexts.

Theory: Comparing findings against multiple theoretical explanations.

Triangulation - how it helps

Helps reduce bias and increases confidence in results.

reflexivity - definition

The researcher's awareness of their own influence on the study and interpretation of results.

reflexivity - types

Personal: Researcher reflects on personal values or bias (e.g., gender, culture).

Epistemological: Reflecting on how the research method shapes knowledge (e.g., choice of interview vs. observation).

reflexivity - how is it useful

Useful in qualitative research; strengthens evaluation/critical thinking marks.

confounding variables - definition

Variables other than the IV that might affect the DV and distort results.

confounding variables - example

Example: Participant age, time of day, prior experience, researcher behaviour.

confounding variables - how it helps

Identify potential confounds and suggest ways to control them in evaluation.

demand characteristics - definition

Cues in a study that lead participants to behave in a way they think the researcher wants.

demand characteristics - example

Example: Participants change behaviour in response to experimenter expectations (e.g., guessing the aim).

demand characteristics - how it helps

Can reduce internal validity; discuss ways to minimize, e.g., single-blind procedures.

quantitative research - definition

Research that collects numerical data that can be measured and statistically analysed.

quantitative research - example

Experiments, surveys, correlational studies.

quantitative research - why is it used

Often used to test hypotheses; supports causal inference in experiments.

qualitative research - definition

Research that collects non-numerical data to explore experiences, opinions, or meanings.

qualitative research - examples

Interviews, observations, case studies, focus groups.

qualitative research - why is it used

Often used for depth and context; links to credibility and reflexivity.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR RESPONSIBILITY

Informed consent - parental, next of kin, tribal

Voluntary participation - no obligation or coercing

Deception - is it justified? Why?

Right to withdraw - self and data

Confidentiality of personal info and results

Protection from harm - physical and psychological

Debriefing - full disclosure, where to seek further info / support

fancy words to use in bias

reflexivity

credibility

validity

reliability

triangulation

demand characteristics

random allocation

generalisability

fancy words to use in measurement

quantitative research

qualitative research

operationalised

validity

reliability

psychometrically validity

standardized

triangulate

fancy words to use in causality

confounding variables

independent variable

dependent variable

cause-and-effect

internal validity

true experiment

subjective

relationship

direct relationship

fancy words to use in responsibility

ethical conduct

informed consent

voluntary participation

deception

right to withdraw

confidentiality

protection from harm

debriefing

coercion