Animal Communication Mechanisms

Reciprocal Altruism

when animals make sacrifices to help each other, with the expectation of receiving help in return

Cochlea

the spiral cavity of the inner ear which produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations. plays a vital role in the sense of hearing and participates in the process of auditory transduction

Badges

morphological specializations used as visual signals, such as bright patches of skin, fur, or feathers, etc., affecting the color and shape of the animal for purposes of communication

Honeybee Waggle Dance

a series of figure-eight movements performed to indicate the direction and abundance of a distant food source

Ritualization

the evolutionary process by which non-communicative behaviors are transformed into communicative behaviors.

Imprinting

Learning process forming irreversible attachments in early life

Fixed Action Pattern

a predictable series of actions triggered by a cue, sometimes called the key stimulus. it is automatic and involuntary. once triggered, it will go on to completion, even if the key stimulus is removed in the meantime

Principle of Antithesis

when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a directly opposite nature

Redundancy

Repetition of signals to increase successful communication; when the signal components in different modalities carry the same information

Critical Period

a period during someone's development in which a particular skill or characteristic is believed to be most readily acquired, or a period during the early life of an animal when some property develops rapidly, and is most susceptible to alteration by the environment

Releaser (Sign Stimulus)

Specific cue triggering fixed action pattern in another

Code Breaking

Disrupting communication signals of others; a method by which certain animals gain a leg up on their competition by adapting the behavior of another species

Tymbal (Cicadas)

the corrugated exoskeletal structure used to produce sounds in insects. in male cicadas, they are membranes in the abdomen, responsible for the characteristic sound produced by the insect

Pheromones

a species-specific chemical signal that incites a response in another organism. involved in a wide variety of behaviors, including mate selection, food acquisition, alarm responses, territory marking, predation defenses, and other social behaviors indicating social status.

Supernormal Stimuli

Exaggerated versions of natural stimuli triggering heightened responses

Bioluminescence

Production of light by living organisms for communication

Disruptive Coloration

Camouflage breaking up animal's outline to avoid detection

Countershading

Camouflage with darker upper side and lighter underside

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Measure of strength of desired signal relative to background noise

Stridulation

Sound production by rubbing body parts together in animals

Warning Coloration

Conspicuous coloration advertising animal's unpalatability

Displacement Behavior

Out-of-context action in response to conflicting stimuli

Convergent Evolution

the process whereby distantly related organisms independently evolve similar traits to adapt to similar necessities

Reverberation

the persistence of sound after it has been stopped due to multiple reflections from surfaces such as furniture, people, air, etc., within a closed surface; echoes

Attenuation

Gradual loss of energy in a sound wave as it travels (like wifi as you walk further away from the router)

Echolocation

Sonar system using sound waves to locate objects in environment

Intention Movements

incomplete behavior patterns that provide potential information that an animal is about to perform a particular activity

Batesian Mimicry

when a species mimics the warning signals of another species without having the characteristics that make it undesirable to their shared predator (as in, a non-toxic animal has the coloration of a toxic one in order to deter predators)

Tonotopic Map

expresses gradients in the representation of sound properties. such properties are frequency of tones, frequency ratios between harmonics and the pitch of complex sounds, speed and direction of frequency sweeps, sound intensity and location of sound in space

Aposematic Signals

Warning signals advertising animal's dangerous nature

Swim Bladder (Fish)

Gas-filled organ controlling buoyancy in fish, and thus to stay at their current water depth without having to expend energy in swimming

in some fish, such as drums and croakers, the swim bladder is used to make sounds and communicate with one another and other fish

Natural Selection

Survival and reproduction of organisms best adapted to environment

Sexual Selection

Preference for certain characteristics in mates

Kin Selection

natural selection in favor of behavior by individuals that may decrease their chance of survival but increases that of their kin (who share a proportion of their genes)

Group Selection

Natural selection acting at level of group instead of individual

Diffraction

Spread of waves passing through narrow aperture or edge

Refraction

Deflection of light ray passing from one medium to another

Proximate Causation

an event which is closest to, or immediately responsible for causing, some observed result—the mechanisms directly underlying the behavior

Ultimate Causation

Explanation of traits in terms of evolutionary forces

Interaural Time Differences

Difference in sound arrival time between two ears; it is important in the localization of sounds, as it provides a cue to the direction or angle of the sound source from the head

Interaural Intensity Differences

Difference in sound pressure level between two ears; and are important cues that men and animals use to localize higher frequency sounds

Ontogeny

Biological development of an individual organism (lifespan)

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history of a species through genes

Waveform

a depiction of the pattern of sound pressure variation (or amplitude) in the time domain

Spectrum

a representation of a sound - usually a short sample of a sound - in terms of the amount of vibration at each individual frequency

Syrinx

Vocal organ of birds for sound production; located at the base of a bird's trachea, it produces sounds without the vocal folds of mammals

Larynx

the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals

Fundamental Frequency

Lowest frequency of a periodic waveform

Formant Frequency

Broad spectral maximum resulting from acoustic resonance of the human vocal tract

Brightness

Attribute of visual perception of radiating or reflecting light; the perception elicited by the luminance of a visual target

Hue

Attribute of colors classifying them as red, yellow, green, etc.

Chroma

Purity of a color without black, white, or gray added

Rods

a type of photoreceptor cell in the retina. they are sensitive to light levels and help give us good vision in low light

Cones

a type of photoreceptor cell in the retina. they give us our color vision

Monochromatic

Vision with no color perception, only shades of gray

Dichromatic

Vision with two types of cone cells for color perception

Trichromatic

Vision with three types of cone cells for color perception (humans, monkeys, apes, etc)

Tetrachromatic

Vision with four types of cone cells for color perception (most birds and reptiles)

Pigments

Substances that appear a certain color by selectively absorbing light

Structural Coloration

color derived from micron and submicron structures that reflect specific wavelengths of light, or the production of color by microscopically structured surfaces fine enough to interfere with visible light instead of pigments

Middle Ear

Air-filled cavity transmitting sound waves to inner ear behind the eardrum

Inner Ear

he semicircular canals and cochlea, which form the organs of balance and hearing and are embedded in the temporal bone. the purpose of the inner ear is to convert sound waves to electricity and send it to the brain for interpretation

Place Coding

the firing rate of neurons within the inner hair. our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane

Temporal Coding

the timing in which these firing rates occur. the auditory nerve attached to a hair cell will fire at the same point in a sound cycle, thus, the firing rate will match the incoming sound frequency

Reciprocal Altruism Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Individuals engage in acts of altruism, such as sharing food, with the expectation that they will be reciprocated in the future.

Function: It promotes cooperation among unrelated individuals and can enhance the fitness of both parties.

Requires that the two individuals recognize each other as individuals

Cochlea Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Sound vibrations are transmitted through the cochlear fluid, causing hair cells to bend and generate electrical signals.

Function: It enables hearing and the detection of different frequencies of sound

High frequencies activate receptors near the entrance of the vibration while low frequencies travel toward the other end - separates incoming vibrations into different frequency channels (pitch)

Badges Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: These markings can be produced through pigmentation, coloration, or structural features.

Function: Badges can convey information about an individual's identity, status, or fitness to others.

Honeybee Waggle Dance Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Bees perform specific dance patterns that indicate the direction and distance to the food source in relation to the sun.

Function: It helps the hive efficiently locate and exploit food resources.

Ritualization Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Over time, behaviors or signals become refined and more standardized through natural selection.

Function: It enhances the accuracy and efficiency of communication within a species.

Imprinting Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Young animals become strongly bonded to the first moving object they see during the critical period.

Function: It promotes attachment to caregivers or appropriate mates.

Fixed Action Pattern Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: The presence of a sign stimulus or releaser reliably triggers the entire behavioral sequence.

Function: crucial for species-specific behaviors, including communication and reproduction.

Principle of Antithesis Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Contrasting signals enhance the clarity of communication.

Function: It helps receivers accurately interpret an animal's state or intentions.

Redundancy Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Multiple signals increase the likelihood that important information is transmitted accurately.

Function: It enhances the reliability of communication in noisy or complex environments.

Critical Period Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Sensitivity to stimuli is heightened during this period, allowing for specific learning or development.

Function: It ensures that animals acquire essential skills or behaviors at the optimal time.

Releaser (Sign Stimulus) Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: The presence of the releaser reliably initiates a specific behavioral response.

Function: It ensures that communication or social interactions occur when appropriate.

Code Breaking Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Animals develop the capacity to recognize and exploit specific signals from other species.

Function: It allows animals to gain advantages in interactions with other species.

Tymbal Mechanism + Function

• Mechanism: Cicadas contract and relax their tymbal muscles rapidly to create a clicking or buzzing sound.

• Function: Tymbals enable male cicadas to attract females for mating.

Pheromones Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Animals release pheromones into the environment, which are detected by receptors in conspecifics.

Function: Pheromones serve various roles, including attracting mates, marking territory, and coordinating social behaviors.

Supernormal Stimuli Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: These stimuli exploit an animal's innate preferences and sensory biases.

Function: They can elicit behaviors that benefit the stimulus provider.

Bioluminescence Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Light is produced through chemical reactions involving luciferase enzymes and luciferin molecules.

Function: It serves multiple purposes, such as attracting mates, luring prey, or deterring predators.

Disruptive Coloration Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Contrasting colors or patterns create visual disruption.

Function: It enhances an animal's chances of avoiding predation.

Countershading Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: The gradation in coloration provides camouflage when viewed from above or below.

Function: It helps an animal avoid detection by creating the illusion of uniform lighting.

Signal-to-noise Ratio Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: A strong, clear signal is more likely to be detected and accurately interpreted.

Function: It ensures effective communication by minimizing the risk of misinterpretation.

Stridulation Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Friction between specialized body structures generates sound.

Function: Stridulation is used for mating calls, territory defense, or communication.

Warning Coloration Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: These colors serve as a visual deterrent, deterring potential predators from attacking.

Function: It reduces the risk of predation by advertising unpalatability or venomous defenses.

Displacement Behavior Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: It results from conflicting motivations and serves as a release of tension.

Function: It helps animals cope with conflicting emotional states or social situations.

Convergent Evolution Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Different species develop similar traits through natural selection.

Function: It allows species to adapt to similar ecological niches.

Reverberation Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Sound waves bounce off surfaces and continue to reflect within a space.

Function: It can affect the clarity and localization of sound in certain environments.

Attenuation Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Energy is lost due to absorption, scattering, or other factors.

Function: It affects the range and effectiveness of signal transmission.

Echolocation Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Animals emit high-frequency sound waves and interpret the time delay and characteristics of the returning echoes.

Function: It enables animals to detect prey, obstacles, and navigate in their environment.

Intention Movements Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: These movements are consciously executed by animals to communicate with conspecifics.

Function: It allows individuals to signal their intentions and coordinate social interactions.

Batesian Mimicry Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Non-toxic organisms develop similar visual cues as toxic counterparts.

Function: It reduces the likelihood of being preyed upon by deceiving potential predators.

Tonotopic Map Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Neurons are organized to respond to specific sound frequencies based on their location.

Function: It allows animals to process and discriminate between different frequencies of sound.

Aposematic Signals Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: These signals communicate the potential harm or unpalatability of the organism.

Function: It discourages predators from attacking and potentially being harmed.

Swim Bladder Mechanism + Function

Mechanism: Fish adjust the volume of gas in the swim bladder to control their buoyancy.

Function: It allows fish to control their depth in the water and conserve energy.

Reciprocal Altruism Example

Vampire bats regurgitate blood to feed starving colony members. Bats that share food are more likely to receive assistance when they are in need

Cochlea Example

Humans and other mammals the cochlea enables the detection of various sounds, from low-frequency rumbling to high-pitched whistles

Badges Example

Male peacocks display their vibrant, iridescent tail feathers as badges to attract mates and establish dominance

Honeybee Waggle Dance Example

A honeybee performing a waggle dance informs its hive mates about the location of a flower patch with nectar and pollen

Ritualization Example

The courtship display of the European goldfinch involves ritualized song and dance movements to attract a mate