Psychology AP Exam Set

Sampling Bias

A sample that isn’t representative due to convenience sampling (selecting participants based on availability)

Hawthorne Effect

People change behavior when watched

Nature

How genes influence your behavior

Nurture

How outside situations influence your behavior

Dendrites

Receive incoming NTs; at the beginning of the neuron

Axon

Action potential travels down this branch-like structure

Myelin Sheath

Speeds action potential down the axon and protects the axon

Depressants

Decrease NS activity, like alcohol

Stimulants

Increase NS activity, like caffeine and cocaine

Hallucinogens

Hallucinations and altered perceptions, marijuana

Endocrine System

Send hormones throughout the body

EEG

Within brain research, this shows the broad brain activity; it is not specific

fMRI

In brain research, this shows brain activity in specific regions, measures oxygen

Lesions

In brain research, destruction of brain tissue (lesioning)

Blindsight

Caused by lesions to primary visual cortex; people can “see”—such as catching a ball—despite being blind; this is evidence of association areas

Prosopagnosia

Face blindness—damage to occipital/temporal lobe

Circadian Rhythms

24ish hours biological clock of body temp and sleep; disruption (jet lag) of this makes your internal clock out of sync

Beta Waves

In sleep, awake time (you betta be awake for the exam)

Alpha Waves

In sleep, high amplitude, drowsy NREM stages

NREM 1

light sleep, hypnagogic sensations (falling feeling)

NREM 2

bursts of sleep spindles

NREM 3 Delta Waves

deep sleep

Activation Synthesis

In dream theory, your brain produces random busts of energy that stimulate lodges memories in limbic system and brain stem. Meaning dreams and random and develop meaning

Phantom Limb Pain

pain from a limb that no longer is there (amputated) - caused by brain plasticity

Epilepsy

seizures caused by too much or too little Glutamate or GABA

Consolidation Dream Theory

The brain is combining and processing memories for storage

Consolidation

Sleep is needed in order to store memories

Restoration

Sleep is needed to help regenerate the immune system and restore energy

Insomnia

An inability to fall asleep or stay asleep; it can be due to anxiety or stress

Somnambulism (sleep walking

During stage 3 of sleep (NOT REM) when one gains motor ability to walk

Narcolepsy

Disorder where one falls into REM sleep immediately; it is treated with stimulants

Sleep Apnea

Disorder where one stops breathing while asleep; obesity is among one of the primary causes

REM behavior disorder

The malfunction of mechanism that paralyzes you during REM

Volley Theory

One of the theories of hearing: states that groups of neurons fire APs out of sync; the staggered firing allows encoding of frequencies higher than a neuron could achieve alone

Top-Down Processing

The BIG idea (prior expectations) broken down into SMALLER parts

Bottom-Up Processing

SMALLER parts (sensory info) is built up to the BIG idea

Perceptual Set

The tendency to see something as part of a group; speeds up signal processing

Gestalt Psychology

The mind organizes sensory information into wholes rather than parts.

Figure/ground

A Gestalt principle where one organizes info into figures/objects that stand apart from its surroundings

Closure

Gestalt principle where one mentally fills in gaps (such as letters in a word with spaces between them)

Proximity

Gestalt principle where one groups things together that appear near each other

Similarity

Gestalt principle where one groups things together based on similarities of looks

Constancines

Ability to recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input of size, shape, brightness

Apparent Movement

Objects appear to be moving when they aren’t: blinking lights

Selective Attention

Focusing on a particular object and ignoring distractions/irrelevant info

Blindness

Being so focused on the task at hand that you do not realize when something is added

Change Blindness

Failure to notice a change in the scene

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus on one auditory stimulus and filtering out other surrounding sounds in a noisy environment

Binocular Depth Cues

Both eyes making up a 3D image

Retinal Disparity

In each retina, an image is cast slightly different; the location of the image helps us to determine the depth

Convergence

The eyes rotate towards one another as an object draws nearer (they converge)

Monocular Depth Cues

Formation of a 3D image from a 2D image

Interposition

Overlapping images appear closer; the smaller is further away or behind

Relative Size

Objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away (perhaps the same height person, whoever stands further is smaller)

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines converge with distance: railroad tracks

Relative Clarity

When hazy objects appear further away

Texture Gradient

Coarser/more detailed objects appear closer

Imagery

Attaching images to information makes it easier to remember

Dual Encoding

Using multiple methods of processing to remember (for ex. photo + words)

Psychometric

The field of psychology and education for creating tests

Cross-sectional Study

A study of people of different ages at the same point in time: it is inexpensive and quick, but it can present differences due to generational gaps

Longitudinal Study

Studying the same people over a time period. It eliminates group differences and is detailed, but is expensive and time consuming.

Teratogens

External agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development

Maturation

Natural course of development that occurs no matter what

Gross Movement

Large muscles involved in strength and coordination—such as walking—develop first

Fine Movement

Small muscles involved in precision and controlled movement (writing)

Reflexes

innate responses that we are born with that are lost with time

Visual Cliff

An experimental apparatus that studied depth perception in babies. The babies have to learn depth and therefore cross a “cliff”

Critical Period

The crucial period where something HAS to be developed or else if won’t happen—language for humans

Jean Piaget Cognitive Development

Stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor Stage

From birth to 2 years of age, children focus on world exploration. At this stage, lack and gain object permanence.

Pre-operational Stage

2 to 7 years in which children use pretend play and mental symbols. They lack conservation (recognizing substances remain the same despite changes in shape) and reversibility (reverse operations 2+4, 4+2) and theory of mind. They are egocentric and use animism (innanimate objects have feelings).

Concrete Operational

7 to 11 years olds use operational thinking, classification, and can think logically in a concrete context; struggle with abstract.

Formal Operation Stage

11 to 15 years olds use abstract and idealist thoughts and hypothetical-deductive reasoning.

Vygotsky’s Theory

The theory that cognitive development is a social process too, and people need to interact to develop.

Zone of Proximal Development

The gap between what a child can do on their own and what they can do with support.

Language

The shared system of symbols that operate by rules and is infinite. Basically, how people communicate.

Phonemes

The smallest unit of sound (ch in chat)

Morpheme

The smallest unit that carries meaning (-ed means past tense)

Semantics

The set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding -ed makes something past tense). Not to be confused with morpheme.

Temperament

The patterns of emotional reactions in babies - impacts attachment. Often they throw tantrums in the name of this.

Authoritarian

The parenting style characterized by rules and obedience; strict; kids lack initiative and present low self-esteem.

Permissive

The parenting style characterized by lack of rules and too much freedom. Children end up lacking initiative and having too high a self-esteem.

Authoritative

NOT AUTHORITARIAN. The parenting style where parents have a more balanced relationship with their children. A give and take. Children end up socially competent and reliable. It is considered the best parenting style, producing kids with high self-esteem and initiative.

Parallel Play

Children playing side by side without interacting.

Imaginary Audience

When one believes that others are constantly watching them; involves egocentrism.

Personal Fable

Stemming from imaginary audience, when someone believes they are special or unique.

Social Clock

The shared, among culture, expectation of age-appropriate behavior—when to marry, have children, etc.

Gender Roles

The expected behaviors associated with men and women—due to cultural influence.

Erikson’s Socio-emotional Development

The development stages where each stage presents a crisis in need of resolving.

Trust v. Mistrust

Erikson’s first development stage, between birth and 18 months, where infants develop trust if their needs are met.

Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt

Erikson’s second stage, between 1-3 years, where individuals learn to exercise their free will.

Initiative v. Guilt

Erikson’s third stage, between 3-6 years, where individuals learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans; they also learn to be creative.

Industry v. Inferiority

Erikson’s fourth stage, between 6 years until puberty, where individuals learn what they are accomplished or talented in, be it sports or school.

Identity v. Role Confusion

Erikson’s fifth stage, between adolescence through 20s, where one refines themself by testing different roles and forming their identities.

Intimacy v. Isolation

Erikson’s sixth stage, between 20s and 40s, where one forms close relationships and gains the capacity to love.

Generativity v. Stagnation

Erikson’s seventh stage, between 40s and 60s, when one discovers the sense of contributing to the world through their family and work.

Integrity v. Despair

Erikson’s eighth stage, 60s and older, where one reflects on their life and feels either satisfaction or failure.

Foreclosure

Under Marcia’s Identity Theory, the premature commitment without exploration (declaring you want to be a lawyer because your parents say so).

Moratorium

Under Marcia’s Identity Theory, actively seeking an identity without commitment, such as trying many school clubs to see what sticks.