Bio final

What does mitosis produce?

produces 2 diploid daughter cells

What does meiosis produce?

produces 4 haploid daughter cells

What happens when chromosomes cross over?

they swap pieces of DNA

What did Griffith discover in his transformation experiment?

Griffith's experiment was injecting mice with pneumonia

He found that there is a molecule responsible for traits/heredity

How did Avery show DNA was the genetic material?

used nucleic acid and enzymes to kill proteins, the experiment changed when the DNA was affected and there was no change when the proteins were affected

How did Hershey and Chase show DNA was the genetic material?

placed radioactive isotopes of phosphorus and sulfur into bacteriophages and watched the bacteriophages infect cells, found that cells had radioactive phosphorus in them

What did Chargaff do?

found that there are 4 different nitrogenous bases in nucleotides (cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine), found that C\=G and A\=T

What did Rosalind Franklin do?

captured photo 51 in 1952 using x-ray crystallography, the photo showed an "x" which indicated a helix structure for DNA

Which evidence did Watson and Crick use to show DNA was the genetic material?

Photo 51 + Chargaff Rule + Math \= discovery of DNA

What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide?

sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base

What is a purine?

a double-ringed nitrogenous base

Which DNA bases are purines?

Adenine and Guanine

What is a pyrimidine?

single-ringed nitrogenous base

Which DNA bases are pyrimidines?

Cytosine and Thymine

helicase

unwinds and unzips the DNA, creates a replication fork

DNA polymerase

base pairs the nucleotides to produce new DNA strands

Okazaki fragments

100-200 base long segment, combined by DNA ligase

DNA ligase

connects Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand

Telomere

chromosome caps, located on the tips of chromosomes, prevent the DNA sequence from being damaged during replication

What is the Central Dogma of molecular genetics?

DNA -\> RNA -\> Protein

mRNA (messenger RNA)

carries information throughout the cell, created in the nucleus through transcription

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

forms the subunits of the ribosome, the ribosomes are the structures that produce protein

tRNA (transfer RNA)

transfers amino acids to the polypeptide chain on the ribosome

What is produced in transcription?

mRNA

What is produced in translation?

proteins

splicing

process of cutting out introns and leaving in exons

exons

DNA that is transcribed into the gene or RNA sequence; part of the gene that is left in

introns

DNA that is cut out; not part of the gene

What is the start codon?

AUG

What are the stop codons?

UAG, UGA, UAA

Substitution

A mutation in which a nucleotide or a codon in DNA is replaced with a different nucleotide

Frame Shifts

Insertion or deletion of base-pair. Results are missense and nonsense.

Duplications

chromosome segment is repeated on same chromosome.

What are some causes of mutations?

heat, radiation, chemicals, peanut oil, cigarettes, mascara

Mutagen

cause mutations and damage DNA

Nondisjunction

homologous chromosomes fail to separate during anaphase of meiosis

Karyotype

picture showing a complete diploid set of chromosomes, can be used to recognize any chromosomal abnormalities in an individual

How many chromosomes are in a typical human cell?

46 chromosomes, 2 sets of 22 autosomes

Pedigree

A chart or "family tree" that tracks which members of a family have a particular trait

X-linked trait

trait controlled by a gene located on the X chromosome

Genetic Engineering

manipulating the DNA cells take in during cellular transformation; genes of traits we want to see can be inserted in the genome of the organisms

Plasmid

genetic ring used to transport genes into an organism's genome

Recombinant DNA

DNA that has been assembled from more than one source

Animal Cloning

production of a genetically identical organism from a single adult cell

Operon

group of genes that work together

Operator

regulatory site in a gene that turns the gene "on or off" and is located next to the promoter

How does the lac operon regulate the breakdown of lactose?

Lactase made by the lac operon breaks down lactose, and when there is the presence of lactose, the repressor on the operator which turns it on or off is knocked off.

Charels Darwin

observed animals in the Galapagos (iguana, finch, tortious), developed the idea of natural selection

Alfred Wallace

published his own theory of evolution by natural selection about the same time as Charles Darwin

What theory did Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace come up with?

theory of evolution

What theory did Hutton and Lyell develop in 1830?

Uniformitarianism: process that occurs in the past still occur today

Adaptation

a trait which makes an organism better able to survive

Fitness

the likelihood of an organism to pass on favorable or advantageous traits

Females in the animal kingdom want what the most?

grandchildren (males display dominance)

Evolution

the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection (fossils)

homologous structures

structures that adapted for different purposes as a result of descent with modification (ie: whale flipper)

vestigial structures

remnants of important structures used by ancestors but are now no longer used (ie: appendix)

analogous structures

structures that are similar but were derived through different evolutionary paths (ie: bird wings)

population

All the members of one species in a particular area

allele frequency

all the alleles in a population

bottleneck effect

size of a population is reduced and the surviving population's allele frequencies do not match the original population's

founder effect

when individuals form a new population and the gene pool does not reflect the original population

allopatric speciation

populations speciate while separated from each other

sympatric speciation

populations speciate while side by side

behavioral isolation

rituals that certain species use to attract mates might have little to no effect on an organism of a different species

habitat isolation

two species that occupy different habitats within the same area might rarely encounter each other

temporal isolation

two species may have different breeding seasons and are unable to reproduce

mechanical isolation

the parts don't fit for successful fertilization

pre-zygotic isolation

sperm cells and egg cells of separate species of organisms are not compatible with one another thus preventing fertilization

post-zygotic isolation

two separate species are able to produce a sterile offspring

Taxonomy

the science of classifying organisms into groups

Who first proposed the classification system?

Linnaeus

7 levels of classification

1. Kingdom 2. Phylum 3. Class 4. Order 5. Family 6. Genus 7. Species

binomial nomenclature

two-word naming system that gives all organisms their scientific name

Why can't we use common names when classifying organisms?

so the names can be specific but not too cumbersome

Dervied characteristics

new trait that arose in the most recent common ancestor and was passed on to descendants (ie: hair in mammals)

Phylogeny

study of how living organisms and extinct organisms are related

Cladogram

graphical display that links groups of organisms by showing how evolutionary lineages branched off from common ancestors

Node

speciation event causes separation in branches of cladogram

Which living species is most closely related to humans?

chimpanzee

virus

a non living biological entity that cannot be seen with a microscope, cannot be filtered, and reproduce by infecting living cells

capsid

protein coat

lytic infection

infection where the virus takes over the cell and immediately starts reproducing additional viruses

lysogenic infection

infection where the virus' DNA is embedded in the genome of the cell, the prophage will lay dormant until an environmental stimulus activates it into a lytic infection

prophage

DNA segment that contains viral DNA

prion

infectious misfolded proteins that cause other proteins to misfold

prion-caused disorder

mad cow disease

How do some viruses cause cancer?

transformation events produce changes in a cell that make it cancer-like

Prokaryote

unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus (bacteria, archaea)

peptiodoglycan

layer of cross linked sugars and chemical compounds that covers the cell membrane

What is the difference between Archaea and Bacteria?

bacteria have a peptidoglycan and archaea don't

What are the 4 components of a gram stain?

1. crystal violet dye 2. iodine 3. alcohol 4. safranin dye (pink)

What is the difference between gram + and gram - bacteria?

Gram +: has an outer layer of peptidoglycan Gram -: has an outer layer of polysaccharides

How do bacteria reproduce?

asexually

flagellum

A long, whiplike structure that helps a cell to move

capsule

slimelike material secreted, can slide along

fimbriae

appendages that attach to structures, acts as a cable system to hold the cell in place

sex pilus

grappling hook that pulls the cells together

What are the 3 ways bacteria gain genetic diversity?

transformation, transduction, conjugation

transformation

living bacteria take up DNA from dead bacteria