Psych Unit 1

Nature-Nurture issue

describes the question of how much a person's characteristics are formed by either “nature” or “nurture.” “Nature” means innate biological factors (namely genetics), while “nurture” can refer to upbringing or life experience more generally

Heredity

the passing on of traits, characteristics, and predispositions from parents to their offspring through genetic material, essentially meaning how our genes influence our behavior and psychological traits; it's the study of how genetic factors contribute to individual differences in psychology

Environmental factors

social or economic conditions that can affect a person's exposure to stressors. These factors can impact a person's mental health and ability to cope with stress

evolutionary perspective

a field of study that combines evolutionary biology with psychological theory to understand how human behavior and cognition have evolved. It's based on the idea that natural selection has shaped the human mind through the development of adaptations that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.

Natural Selection

a mechanism of evolution that explains how organisms that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their genes to the next generation. This process causes species to change over time, and eventually adapt to their environment.

Reproductive success

the ability of an individual to produce offspring that can pass on their genes to the next generation. It's a key component of fitness and a key element in the theories of natural selection and evolution.

Eugenics

a pseudoscientific movement that promoted the idea that humans could be improved through selective breeding and genetics.

Chromosomes

a thread-like structure located within the nucleus of a cell, composed of DNA and proteins, which carries the genetic information of an organism, determining various traits including behavioral characteristics; essentially, it's the package containing our genes that are passed from parents to offspring, influencing our development and characteristics.

DNA

the molecule within cells that carries genetic information, essentially acting as the blueprint for an organism's development and functions, including aspects of behavior and psychological traits, which are passed down from parents to offspring through heredity; meaning that variations in DNA can contribute to differences in personality, intelligence, and susceptibility to mental health conditions.

Genes

segments of DNA that act as the basic units of heredity, passed from parents to offspring, and code for specific traits, including both physical characteristics and psychological tendencies, essentially determining how an individual develops both physically and mentally, with their expression often influenced by environmental factors.

Twin studies

research that compares identical and fraternal twins to determine the influence of genetics and environment on human traits, behaviors, and conditions

family studies

a key tool in behavioral genetics, and can help assess how similar people are in their physical, psychological, and behavioral characteristics. Family studies can also help identify people with a certain trait or mental disorder, and then assess their family members to see if they have the same trait or are at risk for developing it.

Adoption studies

research studies that compare the behavior of adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents to assess the influence of genetics and environment on behavior.

nervous system

the complex network of cells, tissues, and organs in the body that receive, process, and transmit information from the external environment and internal organs, essentially acting as the body's communication center, controlling everything from thought and emotion to movement and bodily functions; it is primarily composed of the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) and the nerves extending throughout the body (peripheral nervous system).

central nervous system

composed of the brain and spinal cord; it acts as the body's processing center, receiving information from the senses, integrating it, and sending out commands to the body, essentially controlling thought, movement, and emotion.

brain

the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for all thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and behaviors, essentially acting as the "command center" that processes information from the senses and controls bodily functions, including memory, learning, decision making, and movement; it is the physical foundation of the mind, allowing us to interact with and understand the world around us.

Spinal cord

a vital part of the central nervous system (CNS) that connects the brain to the rest of the body, and has several psychological implications: (1) Relay station: The spinal cord acts as a relay station, sending messages from the brain to the body and from the body to the brain. (2) Reflexes: The spinal cord has its own system of automatic processes called reflexes, which allow the body to respond to sensory information without waiting for input from the brain. For example, the knee jerk and pain withdrawal reflexes are based on the spinal cord's ability to make simple decisions about incoming sensory messages. (3) Central pattern generators: The spinal cord contains interneurons that form neural circuits that control rhythmic movements. (4) Injury: A severe spinal cord injury can drastically change a person's life. The higher the damage occurs, the greater the loss of function and sensation.

peripheral nervous system

the network of nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord, carrying messages between the central nervous system (CNS) and the rest of the body, essentially allowing for communication between the brain and organs, muscles, and senses throughout the body; it includes both voluntary actions controlled by the somatic nervous system and involuntary functions managed by the autonomic nervous system.

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, breathing, and perspiration, essentially managing bodily processes without conscious effort, often associated with the "fight, flight, or freeze" response and playing a crucial role in emotional regulation. The autonomic nervous system is broken down into two parts: parasympathetic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system.

Somatic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary muscle movements and receives sensory information from the body, essentially allowing conscious control over bodily actions like moving your arms, legs, and other muscles; it is considered the "voluntary nervous system" as opposed to the autonomic nervous system which controls involuntary functions like breathing and digestion.

parasympathetic nervous system

the "rest and digest" system, a part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for bodily functions when the body is at rest, like digestion, salivation, and relaxation, essentially acting in opposition to the "fight, flight, or freeze" response of the sympathetic nervous system; it helps to conserve energy and restore the body to a calm state after periods of stress.

sympathetic nervous system

the part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the "fight, flight, or freeze" response, activating bodily functions like increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and heightened alertness when faced with a perceived threat or stressful situation; essentially preparing the body for immediate action.

glial cells

a non-neuronal cell found in the nervous system that primarily provides support and protection to neurons, maintaining the overall health of the neural environment by regulating chemicals, forming myelin sheaths, and participating in brain repair processes; essentially acting as the "glue" that holds the nervous system together, despite not directly firing electrical impulses like neurons do.

reflex arc

the neural pathway that governs a reflex action, essentially the complete circuit of nerve signals from the initial sensory stimulus to the resulting motor response, often occurring automatically without conscious brain involvement, like quickly withdrawing your hand from a hot stove; it consists of a receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron (in the spinal cord), motor neuron, and effector muscle that produces the response. The reflex arc is an automatic response. The main function of a reflex arc is to provide a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus, bypassing the need for complex brain processing.

sensory neurons

a type of nerve cell that receives stimuli from the environment through sensory organs like the eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue, and then transmits this sensory information as electrical signals to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) for processing, allowing us to perceive sensations like sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell.

motor neuron

a specialized type of nerve cell located in the brain or spinal cord that transmits signals from the central nervous system to muscles, directly controlling voluntary and involuntary movements throughout the body; essentially, they are the neurons responsible for initiating muscle contractions and enabling movement.

interneurons

also known as association neurons, are a type of neuron that connect sensory and motor neurons and are involved in many higher functions in the brain, including learning, memory, and cognition

neural transmission

the process by which information is transferred between neurons, where a chemical signal called a neurotransmitter is released from one neuron (presynaptic neuron) and received by another neuron (postsynaptic neuron) across a tiny gap called a synapse, allowing for communication between nerve cells in the brain and nervous system.

resting potential

refers to the electrical charge difference across a neuron's cell membrane when it is not actively sending signals, meaning it is in a state of rest; essentially, it's the stable negative charge maintained by a neuron when not firing an impulse, typically measured around -70 millivolts (mV).

depolarization

refers to the process where a neuron's cell membrane potential becomes less negative, allowing for the initiation of a nerve impulse (action potential) by letting positive ions flow into the cell, essentially creating an electrical signal that can be transmitted along the neuron; it's a key step in neural communication and occurs when a neuron is stimulated beyond a certain threshold.

refractory period

the delay in response time to a second stimulus that occurs after being stimulated by a first stimulus. This delay is caused by the brain processing the initial stimulus

reuptake

the process by which a neuron reabsorbs a neurotransmitter after it has been released and transmitted across a synapse.

threshold

the minimum level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential in a neuron, essentially the point at which a neuron will fire an electrical signal; this is typically measured as a membrane potential, usually around -55 mV, where if the electrical charge reaches this level, the neuron will fire an impulse.

multiple sclerosis

an immune-mediated disease that occurs when the body's immune system attacks the myelin sheath, the protective covering around nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. This damage to the myelin sheath slows or stops nerve signals, which can lead to MS symptoms.

myasthenia gravis

autoimmune disease that causes the body's immune system to produce antibodies that block the communication between nerves and muscles. This prevents muscles from receiving nerve signals and contracting, resulting in weakness. Most common cause of myasthenia gravis, these antibodies block the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) receptors on muscles, preventing them from receiving nerve signals.

neurotransmitter

a chemical messenger molecule released by neurons (nerve cells) that allows them to communicate with each other, carrying signals across synapses to influence the function of other neurons, muscles, or glands, essentially enabling processes like thought, emotion, and movement within the body; examples include dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine.

excititory neurotransmitter

a chemical messenger that stimulates a nerve cell, or neuron, and causes it to pass a message on to the next cell. This increases the likelihood that the message will continue to be passed along.

inhibitory neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that decrease the likelihood of a nerve cell firing an action potential, or sending a message, to another cell. They do this by preventing or blocking chemical messages and reducing nerve cell stimulation.

dopamine

a type of neurotransmitter and hormone that gives you feelings of pleasure, satisfaction and motivation. It plays a role in many important body functions, including movement, memory and pleasurable reward and motivation. High or low levels of dopamine are associated with several mental health and neurological diseases. -REWARD SYSTEM -very strong sense of desire before you consume/buy something -TOO MUCH IS ASSOCIATED WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA -TOO LITTLE IS ASSOCITATED WITH PARKINSINS AND DEPRESSION

seratonin

It's often called your body's natural “feel good” chemical. When at normal levels, you feel more focused, emotionally stable, happier and calmer. Low levels are associated with depression. -HAVE TO PROCESS THROUGH FOOD

norepinephrine

-a chemical messenger that helps transmit nerve signals across nerve endings to another nerve cell, muscle cell or gland cell. - responsible for the emotions of fear and anger, which trigger the "fight, flight, or freeze" response. -High levels are released during attraction, which can make you feel giddy, energetic, and euphoric. -ADRENALINE -focus -normal levels help you maintain focus -too high = fight, flight, freeze

glutamate

-learning and memory -most abundant excititory neurotransmitter

GABA

-plays a key role in the brain's ability to balance excitation and inhibition of electrical impulses. -known for its calming effects and is thought to help control nerve cell hyperactivity associated with anxiety, stress, and fear. -blocks signals -without it there would be too much brain activity which could lead to seizures

endorphins

-released in response to pain or stress -body's natural painkillers -may promote social bonding -social interactions trigger positive emotions when endorphins bind to opioid receptors -can sharpen memory -runner's high -activities that can increase endorphins: exercising, dark chocolate, sex, massages, laughing,falling in love, eating a delicious meal

Substance P

-pain perception and transmission, heightened pain sensitivity -can help coordinate body's response to stress by interacting with the sympathetic nervous system -implicated in major depressive order, PTSD, and nxiety disorders -inflammatory processes/diseases

Acetylcholine

--helps brain code new information and connect it to what you already know -involuntary musce movement -chemical messenger that's released by neurons to communicate with other cells -memory and learning -muscle contraction -alzheimers and dementia

Horomones

chemical messengers released into the blood and pituitary gland which can change the threshold for behavior

adrenaline

-fight/flight/freeze -increased blood pressure, increased heart rat, increased strength and energy, decreased sensitivity to pain, sweating, anxiousness, nervousness, or excitement

leptin

-hunger and energy -produced by fat cells -as it increases, hunger decreases

ghrelin

-produced in stomach -regulates appetite -as it increases, hunger also increases

melatonin

-the sleep/wake cycle horomone -helps regulate sleep and circadian rhythms -can aid sleep disorders -as melatonin increases, tiredness increases

oxytocin

produced in pituitary glands -childbirth, breastfeeding -bonding social connection

agonist

-stimulates neural activity -a substance that binds to a receptor -mimics effects of a neurotransmitter or horomone , producing a response

anagonist

-inhibits neural activity -chemical that binds to a synaptic receptor and decreases the effect of a neurotransmitter

reuptake inhibitor

-treats mental health conditions by preventing the reabsorption of neurotransmitters in the brain -often first choice of medication for depression because they have fewer side effects than other types of antodepressants

stimulants

--INCREASES BRAIN ACTIVITY -used to enhance alertness, improve attention, increase motivation, enhance cognition, improve mood, and enhnce physical performance.

caffeine

-STIMULANT -widely used to improve mental alertness and physical performance. -increases activity in the brain and nervous system by blocking adenosine receptors and increasing acetylcholine release -considered ONE OF THE SAFEST

cocaine

-very powerful STIMULANT -known for it's intense euphoric effects and ability to enhance alertness and energy. -poses significant health risks -blocks dopamine transporter -dopamine builds up in the synapse, leading to an amplified signal to the recieving neurons

depressants

-DECREASES BRAIN ACTIVITY -reduces arousal and stimulation -slows down messages between the brain and body. -slows down a person's ability to respond, concentration, and coordination

halucinogens

-psychedelic and dissociative drugs. -Drugs that primarily influence the way the brain processes the chemical serotonin. -They can bring on vivid visions and affect a person's sense of self.

alcohol

-DEPRESSANT -disrupts the balance of neurotransmitters in your brain and affects your feelings, thoghts, and behaviors -affects part of brain that controls inhibition, making people more relaxed and more confident

marijuna

-DEPRESSANT -euphoria or feeling "high" -altered perception of time, space, and sensory experiences -relaxation or drowsiness

opioids

-primarily used for pain relief -high potential for abuse and addiction -can be perscription or illega

heroin

-OPIOID -highly addictive -derived from morphine -can be injected, snorted, or smoked -comes with severe risks, including overdose and addiction

tolerance

-your body gets used to the substance over time -takes a higher dose to experience the same effects

addiction

-dependence on something

withdrawal

-physical and mental symptoms that occur after stopping or reducing the intake of a substance -can include anxiety, fatigue, sweating, vomiting, depression, seizures, or hallucinations

medulla

Hearts & lungs --> beating and breathing, swallowing and vomiting -located at the bottom of the brainstem

Brainstem

-At the base of the brain, basic functions (breathing,heartbeat). -Includes the midbrain, medulla, pons, reticular activity system (reticular formation). -connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord -controls many essential life functions like consciousness, sleep, and vital signs.

reticular activity system

-network of neurons locatedin the brainstem that plays a crucial role in regulating arousal, consciousness, and the sleep-wake cycle -acts as a filter, filters out unnecessry info -directs important stimuli to the cerebral cortex

reward centers

-process and motivate behavior (dopamine) -responsible for associative learning, emotions, and incentives

cerebellum

generally controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning

cerebral cortex

-wrinkly top part of brain -outermost layer -primary processing center for complex cognitive functions -divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital

limbic system

-set of brain regions that processes emotions and memories --interconnecetd brain structures -learning, motivation, and social processing -"emotional center" of the brain

thalamus

sends signals from the world to the correct part of the brain. -relaying sensory and motor information -includes info from eyes, ears, and body, but not smell.

hypothalamus

-Drives such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sex -regulates the body's internal state by releasing horomones and influencing the autonomic nervous system -plays a key role in maintaining homeostasis

pituitary gland

-RELEASING HOROMONES -"master gland" -small gland located at the base of the brain that produces horomones which control many other glands throughout the body. -regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction

hippocampus

-PROCESSES NEW MEMORIES --converts short-term memories into long-term memories, and for storing and retrieving memories.

amygdala

-PROCESSES FEAR AND AGGRESSION -"fear center" -rapidly reacts to percieved threats triggering the flight, fight, or freeze response

corpus callosum

-nerves connecting the two hemispheres -fluidity

occipital lobes

-back of the head -visual processing and perception

temporal lobes

-sides of head near temples -auditory or sound processing -linguistic processing

parietal lobes

-very top of head (crown) -touch sensitivity

association areas

-integrating and synthesizing info from various sources

somatosensory cortex

-processes sensory information and emotions -organizes the intensity of stimuli -in parietal lobes -generating and regulating emotional states

frontal lobes

-front of head (forehead) -higher-order thinking (planning) -Linguistic processing

prefrontal cortex

-PERSONALITY -regulates and controls many higher-level cognitive functions -working memory -decision making

executive functioning

-control and coordinate other cognitve abilities and behaviors -planning, self-control, decision making, attention, working memory, organization

motor cortex

-MOVEMENT -back of frontal lobes

contralateral hemispheric organization

one side of the brain or hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body, including the eyes (reverse wiring)

Broca’s area

Linguistic part of the brain that allows for speech

Wernicke's area

Part of the brain that allows for comprehension of speech

aphasia

Language disorders that affect expression and comprehension (spoken or written)

bain plasticity (neuroplasticity)

the brain and neural structures/pathways can change the response to n experience

neurogenesis

creation of new neurons in the brain (a lot in the hippocampus)

brain scans

-can diagnose medical issues such as tumors, injuries, and other large-scale intracranial, indentify mental health conditions, understanding brain function, assessing treatment -structural: produces images of brain's structure and can show damage or illness -functional: produces data on how brain is operating, such as blood flow, metabolism, and electrical activity

EEG

-measures electrical activity of the brain by attaching small discs called electrodes to the scalp -detect the electrical charges produced by brain cells and send them to a machine that records the activity as wavy lines on a graph -used to diagnose brain conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, and brain tumors -DOES NOT SHOW FUNCTION JUST ACTIVITY

fMRI

-used to understand how the brain works -CAN SEE BOTH STRUCTURE AND ACTIVITY -measures changes in blood flow and oxygenation in the brain to show which areas are active during a specific task or event

psychosurgery

-Disconnecting or removing brain tisue to treat mental illness

lesion

-a damaged area of the brain, which can be caused by injury, disease, surgery, or congenital disorders. -allow researchers to match specific brain areas with behaviorl deficits