history mocks

What did the leaders want from the league?

Wilson: world parliament, regular meetings, universal representation

Britain: simple organization who met for emergencies

France: strong league with army

Primary aim of the league

promote international cooperation, preserve world peace, cooperate over disarmament, enforce the Treaty of Versailles

Reactions to the league

it was seen as idealistic and as arrogant (as Wilson is American and shouldn’t try to solve Europes problems)

Non-members

USA: they feared that joining the League would draw the nation into foreign disputes and possibly require the commitment of U.S. troops in global conflicts, thereby diminishing their constitutional power to declare war.

Furthermore, many senators from the then Republican-majority Senate were isolationist

The US senate rejected the League of Nations bill 38-55 votes

USSR: not invited to join the League- this was due to ideological reasons (communist) USSR was only invited to join in 1934, however it was expelled again in 1939 with the invasion of Finland.

Germany: Not allowed to join until they have shown peaceful intentions. This increased the feeling of isolation and resentment. Allowed to join in 1926, but was expelled in 1933

The Council

• What it was: The Council was a smaller body intended to handle crises as they arose.

• Members: It consisted of permanent and non-permanent members.

• Functions:

  • Resolving international disputes

  • Imposing economic sanctions

  • Recommending military action

• Cons:

  each PM had a veto, required unanimous agreement from all permanent members, and there could be consequences for members due to sanctions

Key Articles of the covenant

Article 8- issued a call for disarmament

Article 10- ‘the members undertake to preserve against external aggression’ (collective security

Article 12- economic sanctions

Article 16- an act of war against one is against all

Article 19- the league could expel any countries who endangered world peace

Key leaders

Britain and France were key leaders but they were severely weakened by WW1. They lacked the resources and wealth (with Britain suffering from 10% unemployment and over 7 billion pounds debt). Britain was also more concerned with rebuilding trade and establishing an empire and France was more concerned about Germany and the USSR.

The Assembly

• The Assembly was like the League's parliament. Every member nation, regardless of size or power, had representation

• Functions:

  • Admitting new members

  • Electing non-permanent members of the Council

  • Setting the budget

  • Discussing any matter affecting world peace

• Decision Making: Decisions made by the Assembly required either a unanimous vote

Court of International Justice

Settled disputes peacefully

Cons: no way of enforcing its decisions

International Labour Organization:

Aim was to improve conditions of working people. Collected statistics and information.

Cons: could only persuade countries to adopt its suggestions. (Many refused)

Successes: banned poisonous white lead from paint, limited the hours small children could work

Commissions

Refugees: Tried to help refugees return to their homes. Biggest issues were former Russian territories (e.g Balkans)

Pro returned 400,000 Turkish refugees

Con constantly short on money

Health: Attempted to deal with dangerous diseases. Wanted to educate on health and sanitation.

Pro sponsored research into leprosy and malaria

Slavery: worked to abolish world slavery.

Pro: helped free 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone, challenged use of forced labour at Tanganyika railway (50% death rate brought to 4%)

1920s League of Nations

Vilna 1920

Upper Silesia 1921

Aaland islands 1921

Mosul 1924

Corfu 1923

Bulgaria 1925

Vilna

In 1920, Polish forces, under General Lucjan Żeligowski, annexed the city after years of tension.

Lithuania appealed to the League. The League protested to Poland but they did not pull out. France and Britain did not act. Causing no consequences for Poland and is seen as a failure.

Upper Silesia

Upper Silesia, which is a valuable industrial area, rich in coal mines and steel production, was originally granted to Poland after the draft of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany contested over Upper Silesia this was due to the population being a mix of Polish and German speakers. The League of Nations held a plebiscite and Upper Silesia was divided between the two countries, with both accepting this decision. This was seen as a success

Aaland Islands

Finland and Sweden threatened war over the Aaland islands. Sweden and Finland accepted the League's arbitration to give the Aaland Islands to Finland. This was seen as a success

Mosul

Turkey claimed the Kurdish populated province of Mosul which was in British mandated Iraq. The League investigated the problem and warded the land to Iraq, which Turkey accepted.

Corfu

This incident occurred when an Italian general, Enrico Tellini were murdered while surveying the border between Greece and Albania. Mussolini used this as a pretext to bombard and occupy the Greek island of Corfu with 15 people killed.

The League of Nations invoked Articles 12 &15, by condemning Mussolini’s actions but suggesting that Greece should pay compensation. Mussolini refused and threatened to leave the League. Britain and France disagreed, with the British fully prepared to send warships to force Mussolini out of Corfu while the French backing the Italians (army also could not fight as they were in Ruhr)

Conference of Ambassadors made the final ruling, with the Greeks having to apologize and pay compensation of 50 million lire. On the 27 of December, Mussolini withdrew from Corfu feeling victorious. This was regarded as a failure for the League of Nations because it demonstrated the organization's inability to effectively deal with aggression from major powers. Italy achieved its immediate goals with no consequences.

Bulgaria

Greece invaded Bulgaria after an incident on the border where some Greek troops had been killed.

The League demanded both sides stand down and Greek forces withdraw from Bulgaria, with Britain and France backing the League. The League assessed the situation and judged in favor of the Bulgarians. Greece was ordered to pay £45,000 in compensation.

The Greeks obeyed, but complained as there weren’t any consequences for a larger state like Italy when they did it.

Consequences to the failures of the League

Each failure eroded trust in the League's ability to maintain peace and protect its members. Smaller nations began to doubt whether the League could provide effective security against larger, more aggressive states. Major powers themselves became increasingly skeptical of the League's value. They often pursued their own interests outside the League framework, further undermining its authority.

Ruhr Conflict

• After World War I, Germany was required to pay substantial reparations to the Allied powers. By late 1922, Germany was struggling to make its reparations payments. In January 1923, Germany defaulted on its coal deliveries to France, triggering the occupation. In response to the default, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr region, aiming to seize industrial production to compensate for the unpaid reparations. The German government, under Chancellor Wilhelm Cuno, called for a policy of passive resistance. German workers refused to cooperate with the occupying forces, leading to strikes and sabotage. The French and Belgian authorities responded with harsh measures, including expulsions, arrests, and violence. Thousands of Germans were expelled from the Ruhr, and many more were imprisoned. The occupation exacerbated Germany's already severe hyperinflation crisis. The German government printed vast amounts of money to support the striking workers and to compensate for the loss of production, leading to a catastrophic collapse in the value of the mark.

  In November 1923, the exchange rate reached approximately 4.2 trillion marks per U.S. dollar.

  Industrial production in the Ruhr plummeted during the occupation. This had a ripple effect throughout the German economy, leading to widespread unemployment and hardship.

  • Coal production in the Ruhr fell by about two-thirds during the occupation.

  • Statistic: Unemployment rates in some parts of the Ruhr reached as high as 30% during the crisis.

• This crisis fueled political extremist in Germany

• 1924, the Dawes Plan was introduced to address the reparations issue. The plan reduced Germany's annual payments and was able to loan $200 million through Wall Street Bonds. This provided the end of the occupation.

Wall Street Crash & Consequences

The Wall Street Crash, was a devastating stock market crash that occurred in October 1929. It marked the beginning of the Great Depression, which lasted throughout the 1930s and affected almost every country in the world.

Global trade declined by approximately 66% between 1929 and 1934. This created economic hardship. Mass unemployment led to poverty and social unrest, creating fertile ground for extremist parties promising solutions to restore economic stability and national pride. For example, in Germany, the Nazi Party's share of the vote in German elections increased from 2.6% in 1928 to 37.3% in July 1932. This shows the rapid growth in support for an extremist party during the Depression.

The Great Depression also undermined Britain and France’s ability to act as they were facing their won economic problems (Britain unemployment at 2.75 million)

League’s failure to disarm

February 1932, a Disarmament Conference was held. Proposals the ban the manufacturing of chemical weapons were defeated and no country was ready to disarm. In Oct. 1933 Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference, then the League.

Hitlers election

In January 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg. Shortly after becoming Chancellor, the Reichstag building burned down in February 1933. Hitler used this event to seize emergency powers and suppress political opposition. In March 1933, Hitler pushed through the Enabling Act, which granted him dictatorial powers. By the summer of 1933, Hitler had established a one-party state, outlawing all other political parties and consolidating his control over Germany.

Manchurian Crisis

In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, a region in northeastern China, and established a puppet state called Manchukuo. The League of Nations condemned Japan's actions (with the vote 42-1) but were unable to do more other than appoint the Lytton Commission to investigate. The commission concluded that Japan was indeed the aggressor, but the League's response was weak and ineffective. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933 and continued its expansionist policies in Asia. The Manchurian Crisis demonstrated the League's inability to enforce its decisions against a major power.

The Abyssinia Crisis

• In 1935, Italy, under Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia). This was a blatant act of aggression motivated by Italy's desire for colonial expansion.

• The League imposed economic sanctions on Italy, but these were limited and ineffective. Key products like oil were not included due to fears of alienating Italy.

• Italy conquered Abyssinia, and the League's failure to stop the aggression further undermined its credibility. The crisis also exposed the self-interest of major powers like Britain and France, who were unwilling to take strong action against Italy.

  • Britain and France's Hoare-Laval Pact sought to appease Mussolini by secretly offering him 2/3 of Abyssinia.

• 30,000 British coal miners would lose their jobs due to sanctions; Suez Canal was not closed (risk of war with British Egypt) . Hitler invaded the Rhineland which prevented the French involvement, Italy continued to take parts of Abyssinia and forced Halie Selassie into exile.

• Mussolini and Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin Axis Pact, November 1936, conforming their alliance.

Remilitarization of The Rhineland

• In March 1936, Hitler defied the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties by sending German troops into the Rhineland.

• The League condemned Hitler's action, but Britain and France were unwilling to take military action to enforce the treaty. This was partly due to fears of starting another war and partly due to a misjudgment of Hitler's intentions.

• Hitler's successful remilitarization of the Rhineland emboldened him and demonstrated the weakness of the League and the policy of appeasement.

  • German troops numbered only 3,000, and they were instructed to retreat if faced with French resistance. The lack of response emboldened Hitler.

Spanish Civil War

(1936-1939)

• The Spanish Civil War was a conflict between the Republican government and the Nationalist rebels led by General Francisco Franco. The war became an international issue when Germany and Italy supported Franco, while the Soviet Union supported the Republicans.

• The League adopted a policy of non-intervention, but this was largely ineffective as Germany and Italy continued to provide support to Franco.

• The war resulted in a Nationalist victory and the establishment of a fascist dictatorship in Spain.

How did the Manchuria and Abyssinia affect the League’s reputation?

Damaged reputation as effective conciliator

Highlighted inherit weaknesses and problem of self interest in collective measures

The USSR noted the League’s inability to halt aggression so was less likely to engage in collective security

Japan was a council member- so it humiliated the league

Unable to enact any meaningful consequences

Encouraged nations to undermine its authority and create private treaties and arrangements

Hitler saw that the League wouldn’t be a barrier to him

key reasons why the league of nations failed

1. Lack of Universal Membership

• The absence of major powers like the United States and, for periods, the Soviet Union significantly weakened its authority and effectiveness.

• Without these key members, the League lacked the economic and military clout to enforce its decisions effectively.

2. Weakness of Collective Security

• : The League's system of collective security, which relied on member states to act collectively against aggressors, proved to be ineffective. Member states were often unwilling to commit troops or resources to enforce the League's decisions, especially when their own interests were not directly threatened.

• The League lacked a standing army and relied on moral persuasion and economic sanctions, which were often insufficient to deter aggression.

3. Self-Interest of Major Powers

• The major powers within the League, such as Britain and France, often prioritized their own national interests over the collective goals of the organization. This led to a policy of appeasement towards aggressive states like Germany and Italy.

• The self-interest of major powers undermined the League's authority and made it difficult to take decisive action against aggressors.

  4. Economic Depression

• The Problem: The Great Depression of the 1930s exacerbated international tensions and made it more difficult for the League to address conflicts. Economic hardship fueled nationalism and protectionism, undermining international cooperation.

• The economic crisis diverted attention away from international issues and made countries less willing to commit resources to the League.

5. Aggressive Nationalism

• The rise of aggressive nationalism in countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan challenged the League's authority and undermined its efforts to maintain peace. These states were determined to pursue their own expansionist aims, regardless of international law or the League's decisions.

• The League was unable to effectively deter or contain the aggressive actions of these states, leading to a series of crises that ultimately led to World War II.

• 6. Structural Weaknesses

• The League's structure had inherent weaknesses. The requirement for unanimous decisions in the Council made it difficult to take decisive action. The League also lacked effective mechanisms for enforcing its decisions.

• These structural weaknesses hampered the League's ability to respond quickly and effectively to international crises.

Hitler’s foreign policy aims

Destroy the Treaty of Versailles: the disarmament clauses would be broken by introducing conscriptions, and by building up an army, navy and air force. Germany’s western frontier would be secured by remilitarizing and refortifying the Rhineland.

Create a Greater Germany: All German-speaking peoples would be brought to the Reich. The frontiers of Germany would be extended to cover areas with german-speaking people and aryan populations.

Destroy Communism: drawn into conflict with the Soviet Union

Acquire Lebenstraum: Wanted more land as the German people were entitled to more ‘living space’. This means expansion eastward.

Build up a central European empire: wanted to have the most powerful state in Europe

World domination: wanted to rule the world

Appeasement

Appeasement is a diplomatic policy of making concessions to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict.

Several factors contributed to the policy of appeasement:

1. Fear of War:

   • World War I was still a fresh and horrific memory. People wanted to avoid another large-scale conflict at all costs.

2. Economic Problems:

   • The Great Depression had hit Britain and France hard. They were struggling economically and hesitant to spend money on rearmament and war.

3. Public Opinion:

   • Many people in Britain and France believed that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair to Germany and that Germany had some legitimate grievances.

4. Misunderstanding of Hitler:

   • Some politicians underestimated Hitler and believed he could be reasoned with.

5. Lack of Alternatives:

   • Some historians argue that Britain and France were not strong enough to confront Hitler directly in the 1930s, especially given their economic problems and the need to focus on domestic issues.

   Key Events in the Policy of Appeasement:

   • 1936 - Remilitarization of the Rhineland

   • 1938 - Anschluss (Annexation) of Austria:

   • 1938 - Munich Agreement

   • 1939 - Invasion of Czechoslovakia

   • Consequences of Appeasement:

     • Strengthened Hitler:

       Delayed War, Didn't Prevent It:

   • Arguments in favor for appeasement: Bought time for rearmament, public support for avoiding war was high.

   • Arguments against: Strengthened Hitler, demoralized potential allies, ultimately failed to stop him

Anschluss with Austria

The Austrian Chancellor, Kurt Schuschnigg, tried to organize a plebiscite to determine whether Austria should remain independent or unite with Germany. Hitler opposed this, fearing that Austrians would vote against unification.Hitler issued an ultimatum to Schuschnigg, demanding that he resign and appoint a Nazi-friendly chancellor, Arthur Seyss-Inquart. Schuschnigg was forced to comply. On March 12, 1938, German troops marched into Austria. There was little resistance, and many Austrians greeted the German soldiers with enthusiasm. After the invasion, Hitler held a rigged plebiscite in Austria to legitimize the Anschluss. The vote was overwhelmingly in favor of unification.

The Saar

The Saar Plebiscite was a vote held on January 13, 1935, in the Saar region of Germany (now Saarland). The result of the vote was:

• 90.7% voted to return to Germany.

• The overwhelming majority voted to return to Germany. This was a major propaganda victory for Hitler.

• This victory held propoganda value, buffer zone, and had economic importance (industrial and coal-rich region)

Czechoslovakia

The Invasion of Czechoslovakia occurred in two phases: first, following the Munich Agreement in 1938, Germany annexed the Sudetenland, a region with approximately 3.5 million inhabitants, largely of German ethnicity, significantly weakening Czechoslovakia's defenses and industrial capacity. Then, on March 15, 1939, in complete violation of the Munich Agreement, Hitler's forces invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia. This act of aggression marked the definitive end of the policy of appeasement, signaling to Britain and France that Hitler's expansionist ambitions were insatiable and setting the stage for the outbreak of World War II.

Important events

Nov 1936- anti-comintern Pact: The Anti-Comintern Pact was an agreement between Germany, Italy and Japan, that they would work together to stop the spread of Communism around the globe.

Sept 1938 Munich Agreement: gives Sudetenland to Germany (appeasement), in hopes that Germany wouldn’t go further.

Aug 1939 Nazi-Soviet pact: promised not to attack each other and included secret protocols for the division of Eastern Europe

1939 Sept Hitler Invades Poland: Start of Second World War.