Psych 230 Textbook Terms/Definition

Forensic Psychology

Application of psychology to the legal system, intended to guide legal decision making.

Correctional Psychology

Application of psychology to the understanding of the assessment and management of individuals who engage in criminal behaviour.

Criminal Behaviour

Intentional behaviour that, when detected, is sanctioned by the courts as a breach of society's established rules.

cognitive Social Learning Theory

A learning theory of crime that attends to both social and cognitive factors as well as behaviour.

Meta-analysis

Quantitative method of combining the results of independent studies (usually drawn from published literature) and synthesizing summaries and conclusions that may be used to detect and evaluate trends

Central Eight

Offense history, Antisocial Peers, Antisocial Personality, Antisocial Attitudes, Family/martial, Employment/education, substance abuse, Leisure/recreation

Big Four

Offense history, Antisocial Peers, Antisocial Personality, Antisocial Attitudes

Natural Selection

Primary mechanism through which evolution created all species. Natural selection works by allowing the "trait" that bestowed a reproductive fitness advantage to be "selected" for in the sense that those with the trait lived long enough to procreate and pass it on to the next generation.

Eugenics

The belief that the evolution of the human species can be artificially improved by preventing individuals considered genetically "defective" from reproducing by methods such as forced sterilization.

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)

Official diagnosis defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSMS), referring to a constellation of antisocial behaviours occurring during adulthood that have persisted for at least six months. Sometimes ASPD is used interchangeably with psychopathy, albeit incorrectly.

Conduct disorder (CD)

It refers to a constellation of antisocial behaviours (e.g., stealing, getting into fights, using a weapon during a fight) occurring during childhood that have persisted for at least six months.

Psychopathy

Typified by a constellation of affective, interpersonal, and behavioral characteristics such as superficial charm, grandiosity, manipulation and lying, absence of remorse, inability to feel empathy, impulsivity, risk taking, irresponsibility, and living a parasitic lifestyle

Aggression

(specifically human aggression) Refers to the intent and action of inflicting harm on others either through physical means (e.g., punching, gun, knife, slap) or indirect means (e.g., damaging someone's reputation with disparaging gossip).

Antisocial Behaviour

Generic term that encompasses a wide range of behaviours (e.g., hitting, slapping, punching, lying, cheating, stealing, running away, breaking and entering, homicide, and so forth).

Casual Mechanisms

Processes that directly cause a behaviour (i.e., factor X causes factor Y). In order to confirm the existence of a causal mechanism, a research design is needed that allows for the independent variable to be manipulated by the experimenter. Ethically, however, we are unable to do this most of the time. For example, if we wanted to know beyond a doubt whether child abuse causes crime, we would have to randomly assign children to one of two conditions an abuse and a non abuse situation, and clearly this is not an option. There are reasonable proxy designs that get us closer to causality, such as treatment studies that use random assignment or comparison groups as well as longitudinal designs that examine whether naturally occurring changes in variable X are related to changes in variable Y.

Mediators

Variables that explain the relationship between variable X and Y. It might be concluded that variable X exerts its influence on variable Y through a third intervening variable the mediator.

Moderators

Variables that cause the relationship between variable A and B to vary as a function of a third variable the moderator.

Neurotransmitter

The chemical messengers of the brain.

Behavioral Genetics

A subdiscipline of biology that studies how genes in humans and animals influence behaviour.

Phenotypic

An individual's observed properties or how one's genotype is actually expressed. For example, a genotype may have a recessive gene for blue eyes but a phenotype may be for brown eyes.

Polymorphism

Biological term that refers to a situation where alternative versions of a discrete trait exist naturally in a given species. For example, a polymorphism exists for eye color (e.g., blue eyes, brown eyes, green eyes) and blood type A, B, AB, 0 ). The contrasting forms are called morphs.

Epidemiological

Refers to research designs that utilize large representative samples of the general population (or, in some cases, the entire population) in order to study the incidence, prevalence, and/ or nature of a disease or a particular behaviour (e.g., crime).

Selection Pressures

Recurring conditions in the ancestral environment that favored certain traits (in a reproductive fitness sense) and thus promoted their eventual conversion into adaptations.

Adaptation

Evolutionary concept that refers to traits or characteristics that eventually become commonplace in a given species because they somehow enhanced reproductive success in an ancestral environment.

Reproductive fitness variance

The range of possible offspring an organism can produce

Behaviourism

A school of thought in psychology that emphasizes the view that all behaviour can be described and studied scientifically without reference to internal psychological constructs such as the mind.

Psychodynamic theories

Theories of crime that emphasize how psychodynamic processes, such as conscious and unconscious psychological forces, influence the development of criminal behaviour

Learning theories

Theories of crime that emphasize learning, such as the way in which information is encoded, processed, and retained in the process of becoming a criminal

Cross-sectional research

Type of research design whereby different groups of people who differ on a variable of interest (e.g., involvement in delinquent activity) are observed at a particular point in time to determine how they differ on some other variable (e.g., parental supervision) or set of variable

Longitudinal research

Type of research design whereby a particular group of individuals are observed repeatedly over time.

id

The unconscious, instinctual part of the Freudian personality that seeks the immediate gratification of basic drives (e.g., aggression).

Pleasure Prinicple

The driving force of the id, which leads people to seek immediate pleasure while trying to avoid pain

Ego

The conscious part of the Freudian personality, which acts as the mediator between the instinctual demands of the id and the social restrictions of the superego.

Reality Principle

The driving force of the ego, which leads people to defer gratification until it is physically and socially safe to pursue it.

Superego

The part of the Freudian personality that acts as the moral regulator, making sure that we act in accordance with internalized group standards. Includes two subsystems called the conscience and the ego ideal

Conscience

One component of the Freudian superego, which allows an individual to distinguish between right and wrong and inhibit id pursuits that are out of line with one's morals.

Ego-ideal

One component of the Freudian super-ego that represents the socially accepted standards that we all aspire to.

Neurotic criminal

An individual who commits crime as a result of a harsh superego, which is assumed to lead to pathological levels of unconscious guilt that can be resolved by receiving punishment (e.g., a legal sanction for a crime)

Theory of Maternal deprivation

theory of crime proposed by John Bowlby that suggests that if children are not exposed to consistent and constant maternal care in their early years they will experience difficulties in developing the ability to establish meaningful prosocial relationships and, as a result, will be more likely to exhibit antisocial patterns of behaviour.

Social control theory

Theory of crime proposed by Travis Hirschi that suggests that people don't commit crimes because of social controls or the bonds people have to society.

Attachment

Social bond proposed by Travis Hirschi in his social control theory, which refers to one's attachment to others (e.g., parents, friends, teachers).

Commitment

Social bond proposed by Travis Hirschi in his social control theory that refers to the time, energy, and effort one places in conventional behaviour (e.g., getting an education).

Involvement

Social bond proposed by Travis Hirschi in his social control theory that refers to the time and energy one spends taking part in activities that are in line with the conventional interests of society (e.g., school

Belief

Social bond proposed by Travis Hirschi in his social control theory, which refers to one's conviction to the view that people should obey common rules (e.g., the law).

General Theory of crime

Theory of crime proposed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi that suggests that people do not commit crime because they possess high levels of self control

Unconditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally (i.e., automatically) triggers a response (e.g., food is an unconditioned stimulus that triggers salivation)

Unconditioned Response

In classical conditioning, an unlearned response that occurs automatically following the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation is an unconditioned response to the presentation of food).

Conditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a conditioned response after it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., a tone becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a salivation response when repeatedly paired with food, an unconditioned stimulus).

Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, a response to a previously neutral stimulus turned conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation is a conditioned response when it occurs after the presentation of a tone, which has become a conditioned stimulus by repeatedly pairing it with food, an unconditioned stimulus).

Biosocial theory of crime

Social bond proposed by Travis Hirschi in his social control theory, which refers to one's conviction to the view that people should obey common rules (e.g., the law).

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning that takes place by experiencing environmental consequences caused by behaviour, especially reinforcement and punishment.

Positive Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, an increase in the likelihood of a behaviour being exhibited in the future due to the addition of a pleasant stimulus following the behaviour

Negative reinforcement

In operant conditioning ,an increase in the likelihood of a behaviour being exhibited in the future due to the removal of an aversive stimulus following the behaviour

Positive punishment

In operant conditioning, a decrease in the likelihood of a behaviour being exhibited in the future due to the addition of an aversive stimulus following the behaviour.

Negative Punishment

In operant conditioning, a decrease in the likelihood of a behaviour being exhibited in the future due to the removal of a pleasant stimulus following the behaviour

Differential association theory

that suggests that people commit crime when they are exposed (e.g., in intimate group settings) to an excess of definitions (i.e., attitudes) that are favorable to law ... breaking versus definitions that are unfavorable to law breaking.

Differential association-reinforcement theory

combines operant conditioning principles with differential association principles and suggests that people commit crime when criminal behaviour is more reinforced (e.g., in intimate group settings) than non criminal behaviour.

Observational learning

Learning that occurs as a function of observing and often imitating behaviour exhibited by other people.

Vicarious conditioning

A form of learning that takes place by observing the environmental consequences of other people's behaviour, especially reinforcement and punishment.

Personal, interpersonal, Reinforcement (PIC-R)

A form of learning that takes place by observing the environmental consequences of other people's behaviour, especially reinforcement and punishment.

Evidence-based practice

Body of research and replicable clinical knowledge that describes contemporary correctional assessment, programming, and supervision strategies that lead to improved correctional outcomes such as the rehabilitation of offenders and increased public safety

Restorative justice

Emphasizes repairing the harm caused by crime. When victims, offenders, and community members meet voluntarily to decide how to achieve this, transformation can result.

Offender Rehabilitation

The delivery of correctional programming that targets criminogenic needs for the purpose of reducing rates of reoffending by program completers

Custody classification

Method of initially assessing inmate risks that balances security requirements with program needs. Placement considers both custody level and area within a prison

Correctional treatment plan

Written plan that identifies an offender's criminogenic needs and treatment requirements. Typically includes the ranking of needs from most to least serious and an indication of the intensity of programming required based on risk assessment.

Offender classification

Sometimes referred to as custody classification, this process involves the assessment of offender risk and need levels in order to determine the appropriate security placement of incarcerated prisoners

Risk assessment

The determination of risk or probability of reoffending through the systematic

review of static and dynamic factors.

Risk management

The application of risk-assessment information to differentially allocate resources such as programming and supervision in order to manage changes in risk over time

Rehabilitative programs

Written plan that identifies an offender's criminogenic needs and treatment requirements. Typically includes the ranking of needs from most to least serious and an indication of the intensity of programming required based on risk assessment.

Structured Professional Judgment (SPJ)

Incorporates features of both unstructured clinical judgment and the actuarial approach; there are explicit guidelines for which factors to consider (although additional factors may also be considered) but their combination is left up to the discretion of the assessor.

Custody Rating Scale

Statistical scale used by Correctional Service Canada to determine security placement.

Professional override

Provision within a decision making process to permit trained staff, with well articulated reasons, to arrive at a decision different than that recommended by the results of a standardized risk measure.

Corrections and Conditional Release Act (CCRA)

brought into force on November 1, 1992, that governs corrections and the conditional release and detention of offenders. Its purpose is to contribute to the maintenance of a just, peaceful, and safe society by: (a) carrying out sentences imposed by courts through the safe and humane custody and supervision of offenders; and (b) assisting the rehabilitation of offenders and their reintegration into the community as law abiding citizens through the provision of programs in penitentiaries and in the community

Specific deterrence

The impact of court imposed costs (e.g. a sentence) on the particular individual (offender) involved with the court.

General deterrence

The impact of a court imposed cost (e.g., a sentence) on the population as a whole.

Sanctions

Terms used to describe punishment imposed by the courts

Retribution

Considered a morally acceptable response to crime intended to satisfy an aggrieved party, including society, through the application of punishment or other sanctions, if proportionate.

Incapaction

The incarceration of criminals to reduce the risk to the community.

Deterrence

Expectation that increased costs (i.e., longer sentences) by the courts will suppress the frequency and/or severity of crime. The impact of these costs on the particular individual involved with the courts is referred to as specific deterrence. The impact on the population as a whole is referred to as general deterrence.

Rational Choice Model

In criminology, the rational choice model assumes that crime is purposive behaviour designed to meet the offender's commonplace needs for such things as money, status, sex, and excitement. Meeting these needs through crime is considered a rational choice.

Crime desistance

The cessation of criminal behaviour, most often described as a process of change rather than an instantaneous event.

Restorative Justice

Emphasizes repairing the harm caused by crime. When victims, offenders, and community members meet voluntarily to decide how to achieve this, transformation can result.

Victim-offender mediation

Face - to - face meeting in the presence of a trained mediator between the victim of a crime and the person who committed it. The offender and victim talk to each other about what happened, the effect of the crime on their lives, and their feelings about it.

Victim Assistance

Provision of information and support regarding the criminal justice process, which can occur from the time of an incident to the perpetrator's release into the community

Ex-offender assistance

Providing assistance in terms of accommodation, employment, and addictions counselling. Often provided by non-governmental agencies such as the Elizabeth Fry Society, the John Howard Society, and the St. Leonard's Society.

Re-entry

Involves the use of programs and community aftercare targeted at promoting the effective reintegration of offenders into communities upon release from prison

Restitution

Financial reimbursement for property damaged or lost by being a victim of crime.

Community service

Requirement by the courts to provide a form of service to the community(i.e., speaking to youth groups, cleaning up public sites, etc.) in lieu of incarceration. Could be performed in conjunction with a probation or community supervision order.

Risk, Need and Responsivity (RNR

An approach to intervention that asserts intervention should only target those at risk, should only target criminogenic needs, and should be applied in a manner consistent with cognitive behavioral principles.

Criminogenic Needs

Changeable risk factors that, when reduced, result in reduced criminal behaviour. Sometimes referred to as dynamic risk factors.

General responsivity

Refers to the principle of delivering treatment programs in a manner that is consistent with offenders' learning styles (i.e., skills--based, cognitive-behavioral).

Specific Responsivity

Principle of delivering treatment programs in a manner that considers the unique aspects of the offenders, including gender, motivation, and strengths.

Correctional program

A structured set of methods and activities delivered by skilled staff to provide opportunities for offenders to gain new attitudes and skills in order to reduce the likelihood of reoffending. Also referred to as appropriate service delivery, treatment program, or rehabilitative program.

Parole Officer

With a background in social sciences, officers who supervise offenders, either in the community or federal prison, providing counselling and writing reports for various decision makers (i.e., wardens, National Parole Board) regarding release suitability.

Correctional Program Officers

Highly trained paraprofessional who delivers correctional programs to groups of offenders.

Psychopathy

Typified by a constellation of affective, interpersonal, and behavioral characteristics such as superficial charm, grandiosity, manipulation and lying, absence of remorse, inability to feel empathy, impulsivity, risk taking, irresponsibility, and living a parasitic lifestyle.

Sociopathy

A dated term previously used to describe psychopathy. Often used interchangeably though incorrectly with psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder.

Psychopath

A personality disorder defined by a cluster of interpersonal, affective, behavioral, and antisocial traits.

Sociopath

Label used to describe individuals who commit antisocial acts because of family or environmental factors.

Psychopathic Personality Inventory Revised (PPI-R)

154 item self-report measure that uses a four--point rating format. Designed to assess psychopathic traits in offender and community samples. Validated for use in men and women aged 18 to 86 years. Consists of eight content scales, two validity scales, and three factors of psychopathy(self-centered impulsivity, fearless dominance, and cold-heartedness)