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positive school
a perspective that assumes that individuals have no free will to control their behavior
eugenics
the study of and policies related to the improvement of the human race via discriminatory control over reproduction.
New perspectives focused on:
the fact that certain individuals or groups tend to offend more than others and that such “inferior” individuals should be controlled or even eliminated.
craniometry
a 19th-century field of study that emphasized the belief that the size of the brain or skull reflected superiority or inferiority, with larger brains and skulls being considered superior.
what did less flawed studies show in measuring brain/skull size?
showed only a slight correlation between skull/brain size and certain behaviors or personality traits.
modern studies show that people with larger brains…
tend to score higher on intelligence tests (not well measured by skull size)
phrenology
the science of determining human dispositions based on distinctions (e.g., bumps) in the skull, which is believed to conform to the shape of the brain.
physiognomy
the study of facial and other bodily aspects to identify developmental problems, such as criminality.
Who used physiognomy?
Darwin- Darwin’s theory of evolution was used by some theorists to claim that certain racial/ethnic groups were inferior to other groups.
Lombroso’s theory of atavism and born criminals
Informed largely by Darwin’s theory of natural selection, Lombroso (1836–1909) created what is widely considered the first attempt at scientific theory in criminological thought.
Lombroso’s theory of crime
It triggered an immediate response from most Western societies, in terms of both their ideas and their policies related to crime and justice.
atavism
the belief that certain characteristics or behaviors of a person are throwbacks to an earlier stage of evolutionary development.
Lombroso claimed:
born criminals were the ones who should be singled out in addressing crime
stigmata
the physical manifestations of atavism (biological inferiority), according to Lombroso.
According to Lombroso in his list of stigmata:
The manifestation of more than five stigmata indicates that an individual is atavistic and thus a “born criminal.”
stigmata consisted of…
facial and bodily features that deviated from the norm.
what did Lombroso’s theory synthesize?
the themes of craniometry, phrenology, and physiognomy and tied in with aspects of Darwinism
Lombroso claimed:
that he could identify people who would commit certain types of crimes.
What was Lombroso considered as?
Lombroso is considered the father of the Positive School because he was the first to gain prominence in identifying factors beyond free will or free choice.
determinism
the assumption that human behavior is caused by factors outside free will and rational decision making.
Lombroso policy implications
Identifying young children on the basis of stigmata. This led to tracking or isolating certain children as having the potential to commit crimes, based largely on their physiological features.
Minor physical anomalies (MPAs)
physical features, such as asymmetrical or low-seated ears, that are believed to indicate developmental problems.
the IQ test era
The IQ test originated in France with Alfred Binet to identify students who were behind and give them additional help. The purpose is determining whether someone is above or below the base score of average (100).
Goddard’s IQ test
Goddard believed and claimed that IQ was static or innate, meaning that such levels could not be changed, even with training and is inherited.
feeble-mindedness
technical, scientific term in the early 1900s meaning those who had significantly below-average intelligence. Goddard specified certain levels of feeble-mindedness, which were based on the degree to which the score was below average.
what did the bell curve: intelligence and class structure in the US suggest?
consistent with feeble-mindedness, that IQ or intelligence is primarily innate, or genetically determined, with little chance of improvement, that African Americans tend to score the lowest, while Asians and Jewish persons tend to score the highest.
what did the bell curve inspire?
a public outcry, resulting in symposiums at major universities and other venues during which the authors’ postulates were largely condemned.
somatotyping
the area of study, primarily attributed to William Sheldon, that links body type to likelihood of delinquent and criminal behavior. Also, as a methodology, it is a way of ranking body types based on three categories: endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy.
3 layers of body tissue
endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm
endoderm
the medical term for the inner layer of tissue in our bodies.
mesoderm
the medical term for the middle layer of tissue in our bodies.
ectoderm
the medical term for the outer layer of tissue in our bodies.
endomorphic
the body type associated with an emphasis on the inner layer of tissue (endoderm) during embryonic development
mesomorphic
the body type associated with an emphasis on the middle layer of tissue (mesoderm) during embryonic development
ectomorphic
the body type associated with an emphasis on the outer layer of tissue (ectoderm) during development.
viscerotonic
according to somatotyping, the type of temperament or personality associated with an endomorphic (obese) body type; these people supposedly tend to be jolly, lazy, and happy-go-lucky.
somatotonic
the type of temperament or personality associated with a mesomorphic (muscular) body type; these people supposedly tend to be risk-taking and aggressive.
cerebrotonic
the type of temperament or personality associated with an ectomorphic (thin) body type; these people supposedly tend to be introverted and shy.
mesomorphic boys- Sheldon’s model of somatotyping
more likely to have personality traits predictive of criminality, such as aggression, a short temper, self-centeredness, and impulsivity
what did the focus on genetic influences provide?
the opportunity to look more closely at the relationship between culture norms and social influences, otherwise known as environmental influences within biosocial studies.
family studies
studies that examine the clustering of criminality in a given family.
2 important conclusions from the family studies
Criminality is indeed more common in some families and criminal behavior in the mother (or head female caretaker) had a much stronger influence on the future criminal behavior of the children than did the father’s criminal behavior.
twin studies
studies that examine the relative concordance rates for monozygotic versus dizygotic twins.
monozygotic twins (MZ)
pairs of twins who come from a single egg (zygote) and thus share 100% of their genetic makeup.
dizygotic twins (DZ)
pairs of twins who come from two separate eggs (zygotes) and thus share only 50% of the genetic makeup that can vary.
concordance rates
rates at which twin pairs either share or lack a certain trait (e.g., criminality).
confusability index
identifying twins as fraternal or identical, based on sight or a simple survey.
adoption studies
studies that examine the antisocial behavior of adoptees as compared with the antisocial behavior of their biological and adoptive parents.
adoption study- Sarnoff Mednick et al
examined boys born in Copenhagen between 1927 and 1941 and who were adopted early in life.
according to Mednick’s study, who was most likely to offend?
The highest predictability for future criminal behavior by far was for adopted youths whose biological parents and adoptive parents had both been convicted of crimes.
according to Mednick’s study, who was least likely to offend?
Adopted children for whom neither set of parents had offended were the least likely to offend.
selective placement
a policy of placing adoptees in households that resemble those of their biological parents; for example, adoptees from rich biological parents are placed in rich adoptive households.
3 identical strangers
Three triplets separated at birth were deliberately adopted to three families with varying levels of socioeconomic status as part of an unethical study uncovered in the 1980s.
what happens to identical twins separated at birth?
often showed extremely similar tendencies with regard to antisocial behavior.
Polderman’s analysis of twin studies
One of the largest meta-analyses ever performed with over 50 years of twin studies, 3,000 articles, 18,000 traits, and 14 million twin pairs.
Polderman’s analysis results
Results demonstrated that genes and environments equally influenced the majority of the traits examined, including antisocial behavior.
cytogenetic studies
studies of crime that focus on individuals’ genetic makeup, with a specific focus on chromosomal abnormalities.
XYY
Results in “hyper-masculinization,” very tall stature, and some deficits in terms of social skills and intelligence.
XXY
(Klinefelter’s syndrome): Results in some health problems and greater likelihood of identifying as a gay man; not typically linked to criminality.
XXX
(triple X syndrome): Occurs only in women; typically results in no distinguishable difference from biological women with two X chromosomes; not consistently linked with criminality.
XO
(Turner’s syndrome): Typically accompanied by physical mutations (such as a webbed neck); not consistently linked with criminal behavior.
neurotransmitters
nervous-system chemicals in the brain and body that help transmit electric signals from one neuron to another.
dopamine
a neurotransmitter that is largely responsible for good feelings in the brain; it is increased by many illicit drugs (e.g., cocaine).
serotonin
a neurotransmitter that is key in information-processing and most consistently linked to criminal behavior in its deficiency; low levels have been linked to depression and other mental health problems.
brain injuries in incarcerated
Meta-analyses have revealed that between 51% and 60% of individuals incarcerated in prisons report previously sustaining a brain injury, a rate that is approximately five to six times greater than what has been reported in the general population.
frontal lobes
the frontal region of the brain; most of the executive functions of the brain, such as problem-solving, take place here.
damage to frontal lobes
leads to a greater inclination to act on our emotional urges without any logical inhibitions
temporal lobes
a region of the brain (on either side of the head) responsible for a variety of functions and located right above many primary limbic structures that govern our emotional and memory functions.
damage to temporal lobes
damages the limbic structures or the effective communication of these structures with other portions of the brain.
damage to left temporal lobe
appears to have the most consistent associations with criminal offending.
what area tend to be more active in making moral decisions?
areas such as the medial frontal gyrus, an area related to the emotional portion of the brain
what area tends to be involved in more rational, calculated decisions?
the prefrontal cortex, the decision-making portion of the brain
central nervous system
the portion of the nervous system that largely consists of the brain and spinal column and is responsible for our voluntary actions and all higher functions.
electroencephalograms (EEGs)
do not do a good job of describing which areas of the brain are active or inactive, but they do reveal how much electrical activity the brain as an entire organ is undergoing at certain times.
what type of brain wave patterns to psychopaths exhibit?
slower patterns compared to the general population
delta waves
often seen when people sleep
theta waves
observed in times of lower levels of wakefulness
alpha waves
divided into slow and fast wave patterns, tend to be related to relaxed wakefulness
beta waves
observed with high levels of wakefulness such as in times of extreme alertness and in times of excited activity
autonomic nervous system
the portion of the nervous system that controls our anxiety levels, such as the fight-or-flight response, as well as our involuntary motor activities (e.g., heart rate).
what is the ANS primarily responsible for?
involuntary motor activities, such as heart rate, dilation of pupils, and electric conductivity in the skin.
individuals with significantly low levels of ANS functioning:
more likely to engage in antisocial behavior.
stimulus hunger
a phenomenon in which individuals constantly seek out experiences and stimuli that are risky and often illegal.
phenotype
an observed manifestation of the interaction between an individual’s genotypical traits and their environment, such as that individual’s height.
Philadelphia cohort study
individuals with low birth weight had a higher likelihood of engaging in criminal activities, especially when raised in lower-income families or families with weak social structures; if raised in a higher-income household or a strong family structure, they were not as likely to exhibit criminal behavior.
behavioral genetics approach
estimates the influences of genetics and environment on phenotypes like criminal behavior, considering heritability based on twin pair variances, using identical twins
low carb diets
reduced violations by 45% in incarcerated juveniles.
dietary deficiencies and omega 3
are linked to criminality and aggression.
toxins
High levels of toxins like lead, cadmium, and manganese significantly impact behavior, including criminality, particularly affecting vulnerable populations exposed through household products and environmental factors.
biosocial perspectives policy implications
prioritize maternal/infant health care, reduces justice costs, prison time, violence
psychoanalytic perspective
an individual’s behavior is presumed to be due to the three aspects of their personality: the id, ego, and superego; anxiety, defense mechanisms; and the unconscious are key principles of the psychoanalytical perspective.
id
a subconscious domain of the psyche, according to Freud, with which we are all born; it is responsible for our innate desires and drives (such as libido [sex drive]), and it battles the moral conscience of the superego.
ego
the only conscious domain of the psyche; according to Freud, it functions to mediate the battle between the id and superego.
superego
a subconscious domain of the psyche; according to Freud, it is not part of our nature but must be developed through early social attachments.
what are defense mechanisms employed by?
the ego to cope with anxiety, including irrational measures like rationalization, and discharging pent-up feelings onto less threatening targets.
what did Freud’s model of the psyche emphasize?
the influence of the unconscious mind leading to irrational and destructive behavior.
what did Aichhorn apply psychoanalysis to?
delinquent behavior
what did erik erikson focus on?
ego identity
what did david abrahamsen emphasize?
personality distortions and impulse control
what did abrahamsens emphasis highlight?
how early childhood experiences and internal conflicts contribute to delinquent behavior
