AP Psych Semester One Review

Introspection

Scientific recall of sensation and feelings.

Functionalism

Mental processes help adapt to environment.

Structuralism

Focuses on the elements of conscious experience.

Gestalt

Perceptions are more than the sum of the parts.

Behaviorism

Scientific study of observable behavior.

Cognitivism

Focuses on thinking, storage, and processing of information.

Humanism

Emphasis on free will and the potential of all people.

Dependent Variable

What changes as a result of manipulation in an experiment.

Independent Variable

The variable that is changed to observe its effects.

Experimental Group

The group being tested with the independent variable.

Control Group

The group that is tested with no additional variables.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek evidence that supports our beliefs.

Naturalistic Observation

Studying subjects in their natural environment.

Case Study

In-depth research tracking the development of a particular situation.

Null Hypothesis

There is no significant difference between specified populations.

Research Ethics

Guidelines to ensure the protection of subjects in research.

Descriptive Statistics

Summary statistics that describe features of a collection of data.

Mean

The average of a data set.

Median

The middle score in a data set.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of variability indicating the spread of data around the mean.

Correlation Coefficient

Indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.

Type I Error

Rejecting a null hypothesis when it is actually true.

Type II Error

Failing to reject a null hypothesis that is false.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for the body's fight or flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and conserves energy.

Neuron

The basic unit of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.

Action Potential

A neural impulse that travels down the axon.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter important for movement, attention, and pleasure.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

Brainstem

Part of the brain responsible for vital life functions.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and circadian rhythms.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain involved in complex functions.

Limbic System

Associated with emotions and memory.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in higher-level thinking, planning, and personality.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information such as touch and temperature.

Occipital Lobe

Responsible for vision.

Temporal Lobe

Involved in hearing and language comprehension.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Measures brain wave activity.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Uses magnetic fields to visualize internal structures.

Pet (Positron Emission Tomography)

Shows brain activity by tracing radioactive glucose.

Psychophysics

The study of sensory perception and stimuli.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time.

Weber's Law

The just-noticeable difference between stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli.

Sensory Adaptation

Decreased sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged exposure.

Trichromatic Theory

Theory that color perception results from three types of cones.

Opponent-Process Theory

Theory of color vision that accounts for afterimages.

Auditory Canal

Pathway for sound waves to reach the eardrum.

Place Theory

Pitch perception based on where the basilar membrane is stimulated.

Frequency Theory

Pitch perception based on the frequency of neural impulses.

Kinesthetic Sense

Awareness of body positioning and movement.

Vestibular Sense

Sense that contributes to balance and spatial orientation.

Stroop Effect

Delayed reaction when naming the color of a word that contradicts its meaning.

Cocktail Party Phenomenon

The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment.

Sleep Disorders

Conditions that disrupt normal sleep patterns.

REM Sleep

Stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement and vivid dreams.

Hypnosis

A state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on the consequences of behavior.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behavior.

Punishment

Any event that weakens or decreases the frequency of a behavior.

Memory Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage that holds a limited amount of information.

Long-Term Memory

Storage of information over an extended period of time.

Cued Recall

Recall aided by cues or prompts.

Recognition

Identification of previously learned information.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and specific events.

Declarative Memory

Memory for facts and information.

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and tasks.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that help us organize and interpret information.

False Memory

A recollection that people believe to be true but is actually distorted or fabricated.

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple ideas or solutions to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down to the best solution from many ideas.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The belief that future probabilities are influenced by past events.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior because it is inherently rewarding.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior for external rewards or outcomes.

Emotional Stimulus

A trigger that elicits an emotional response.

James-Lange Theory

Emotion results from the perception of physiological reactions.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotion and physiological reaction occur simultaneously.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

Type I Error

Rejecting a true null hypothesis.

Type II Error

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis.

Facial Expressions

Universal indicators of emotions, including happiness, sadness, anger, and fear.

Self-Esteem

An individual's overall subjective evaluation of their worth.

Social Learning Theory

Learning through observing and imitating others.

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

The temporary inability to retrieve information that is stored in memory.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to better recall information that was presented first.

Recency Effect

The tendency to better recall information that was presented last.

Happiness Predictors

Factors including high self-esteem, close relationships, and good sleep that correlate with happiness.

Retention,

The ability to maintain information in memory.

Mindfulness

The quality of being present and fully engaged with the moment.

Schemas

Mental structures to organize knowledge.

Long-Term Potentiation

An increase in synaptic strength followed by repeated stimulation.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds contradictory beliefs.