📚 AP Psychology Study Guide

Hypothalamus

Regulates biological processes such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and hormonal responses.

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movement, motor learning, and balance.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and voluntary movement.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory input, especially related to touch and spatial awareness.

Temporal Lobe

Processes auditory information, memory, and aspects of language.

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information and visual perception.

Resting Potential

The stable, negatively charged state of a neuron until stimulated.

Threshold of Excitation

The minimum stimulation necessary to trigger an action potential.

Action Potential

A rapid, electrical impulse traveling down the axon.

Synaptic Transmission

The process in which neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of facts, events, and experiences.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious retention of skills and habits.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the UCS.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial learning stage in classical conditioning.

Extinction

The disappearance of the learned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of the conditioned response after a break.

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behaviors are modified by their consequences.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a positive stimulus to strengthen a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding a negative stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a positive stimulus to reduce a behavior.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.

Variable Ratio (VR)

Reinforcement after unpredictable responses.

Fixed Interval (FI)

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time.

Variable Interval (VI)

Reinforcement after unpredictable time intervals.

Generativity of Language

The ability to combine a finite set of words and grammar rules to produce infinite meaningful expressions.

Syntax

The structure and rules that determine sentence order and meaning.

Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years)

Infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor activities.

Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)

Emergence of symbolic thought and language development.

Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years)

Logical thinking develops, allowing concrete operations.

Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)

Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning emerge.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to human behavior.

Neuron Structure

Consists of dendrites, soma (cell body), and axon.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information.

Working Memory

Active processing of information with limited capacity.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent storage for information.

Cognitive Development

The progression of thinking and understanding in children.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of relationships formed in childhood, including secure and insecure.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing steps toward a desired behavior.

Learned Helplessness

Cessation of effort after repeated failures.

Taste Aversions

Strong aversion learned from a single experience.

Habituation

Reduced response to a repeated stimulus.

Abstract Thinking (Formal Operational Stage)

Children develop the ability to think abstractly during the formal operational stage, typically starting at age 12.

Egocentrism (Preoperational Stage)

The stage in which children show egocentrism and symbolic thought development, occurring between ages 2 and 7.

Top-Down Processing

Utilizes prior knowledge to make sense of information.

Bottom-Up Processing

Builds understanding from sensory data.

Brainstem Functions

Regulates vital survival functions like heartbeat and breathing.

Auditory Processing Brain Region

The temporal lobe is most associated with auditory processing.

Motor Cortex

The primary motor cortex is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for voluntary motor functions.

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to recall events that occurred before the injury.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new explicit memories following an injury.

Language Critical Period

Suggests a sensitive period during which language acquisition is most effective.

Neural Synaptic Vesicles

Stores and releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap.

Somatic Nervous System Function

Controls voluntary movement and conscious actions.

Neurotransmitter & Mood/Sleep

Serotonin is associated with mood and sleep regulation.

Sleep & Reaction Time

Optimal sleep durations can enhance reaction time performance.

Split-Brain Responses

Split-brain patients react differently based on the visual field presented due to the severed corpus callosum.

Correlation in Graphs

Statistical correlation refers to the relationship between variables, such as positive correlation between mood and sleep.

Neural Communication Synaptic Mechanism

Involves synaptic vesicles releasing neurotransmitters to facilitate neural communication.

Amygdala

Processes emotions like fear, anger, and emotional memory.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Wernicke's Area

Responsible for language comprehension and understanding.

Fusiform Face Area

Specialized in face recognition.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain involved in higher cognitive functions like thought, memory, and reasoning.

Neuroimaging Techniques (CT, MRI)

Methods to visualize brain structure and function.

Sensory Integration

The process of combining sensory information for a cohesive perception.

Restorative Sleep

The deep sleep stage that allows the body to repair and restore itself.

Social Learning Theory

Learning occurs by observing, modeling, and imitating the behavior of others.

Mirror Neurons

Cells in the brain that fire when observing another person performing an action.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt based on experience.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis

A system involved in stress responses.

Genetic Heritability

The degree to which traits are influenced by genetics.

Ecological Validity

How well research findings apply to real-world settings.

Dual Process Theory

The idea that cognition operates using two systems: intuitive (fast) and analytical (slow).

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes.

Broca’s Area

Responsible for language production and speech.

Adaptive Behavior

Behavior that enables an individual to adjust and cope with environmental demands.

Polygenic Inheritance

A trait influenced by multiple genes.

Critical Period Hypothesis

The idea that there is a window of time in which certain skills, like language, must be learned.