Memory, Unit 2- A. Perception/TPSDM, Unit 2.8 Intelligence, Unit 0 - Research Methods and Data Interpretation

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

encode

processing of information into memory system (long-term)

store

retention of encoded information over time

retrieve

process of getting information out of memory storage and into working memory

sensory memory

immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

iconic

visual stimuli, lasts 1/10 seconds

echoic

auditory stimuli, lasts 3-4 seconds

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

maintenance rehearsal

conscious repetition to keep information in short term memory;
increases short term memory by 10 seconds

long term memory

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
-explicit
-implicit

explicit memory

-episodic (personal experiences)
-semantic (facts and information)

implicit memory

-procedural (actions done without thinking: walking, talking, riding a bike)
-conditioned (operant learning)

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information and well-learned information

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

testing effect

being tested on information forces you to pay attention so you will retain more information

rehearsal

conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness or encode it for storage

overlearning

reviewing things already learned to increase retention

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice;
proves that cramming does not work

serial position effect

the tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list
-primacy effect (first items)
-recency effect (last items)

deep encoding

meaningful, better recognition

shallow encoding

appearance or sound, worse recognition

self-reference effect

information "relevant to me" is processed more deeply and is more accessible

mnemonic

memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

chunking

meaningful groups, familiar and manageable units;
we only retain about 4 information chunks at a time

long term potentiation

increase in synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation provides a neural basis for learning and remembering associations

flashbulb memory

clear memory of a emotionally significant moment or event

amnesia

loss of memory

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve or recall information before a traumatic event

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

infantile amnesia

implicit reactions and skills we learned during infancy have an impact on our future as adults, however we have no memory of ever learning those skills

hippocampus

stores explicit memories

cerebellum

forms and stores implicit memories

recall

ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness

recognition

measure of memory, only identify items previously learned

tip-of-the-tongue experience

the inability to retrieve information that you know is stored in long term memory

retrieval cues

anchor points used to access the target information when you want to retrieve it later

priming

unconscious activation of particular associations in memory

context dependent

tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information

state-dependent retrieval

what we learn in one physical state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

mood congruence

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

schema

mental model of an object or event that includes knowledge as well as beliefs and expectations

source amnesia

we retain the memory of the event but not of the context in which we aquire it, can cause false memories

storage decay

poor durability of stored memories lead to decay

Elizabeth Loftus

showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony

eyewitness recall

false memories can be implanted by suggestions and others' stories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

framing

the way questions are worded can change our interpretation of the event

retrieval failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

forgetting curve (Herman Ebbinghaus)

drastic and sudden decline in retention, then levels off consistently

learning curve

a gradual upward slope representing increased retention of material as the result of learning

retroactive interference

new information makes it harder to recall information you learned earlier

proactive interference

learned information disrupts recall of something you experience later

positive transfer

learning one tasks carries on to anothe

negative transfer

knowledge of a previous task does not carry to another

suppression

consciously forcing unwanted information out of our awareness

repression

unconscious; basic defense mechanism that banishes information from consciousness

decay theory

if we encode something well, we can forget it without rehearsal over time

misinformation

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

imagination effect

imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories

Central Executive Functions

Controls information flow from and to the other components of working memory

Phonological Loop

A sub-system of working memory responsible for storing and manipulating auditory and verbal information

Visuospatial sketchpad

A sub-system of working memory that handles visual and spatial information.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory that deals with the physical "know how" of memory. Things you don't have to consciously think about to do.

Method of Loci

Remembering things in a weird and bizarre way to help with memory retention

Chunking

Grouping information together to take up less space in your short term memory

encoding failure

Not paying attention to the information in the first place which leads to failure of bringing the information to your short term memory

Bottom-up processing

the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception

Top-down processing

the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole

Selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

Cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

inattentional blindness

a failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups (Proximity, similarity, and closure)

Proximity

objects that are close to each other have the tendency to be grouped together

Continuity

we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

Similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

Closure

we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object

Connectedness

the effect of perceiving spots, lines, or areas as a single unit

Depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

Relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

Relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away

texture gradient

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed

Interposition

monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away

Linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Apparent movement

the perception that a stationary object is moving

Stroboscopic effect

images in a series of still pictures presented at a certain speed will appear to be moving (old Disney animations)

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Autokinetic effect

a small, stationary light in a darkened room will appear to move or drift because there are no surrounding cues to indicate that the light is not moving

relative motion

As we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move

Perceptual adaptation

the ability of the body to adapt to an environment by filtering out distractions

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating