much excite, much ignite: part 2 (wsc 2025)

Mount Vesuvius

[Naples, Italy] most famous for destroying Roman cities Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 CE, also the most dangerous active volcano

Huaynaputina

[southern Peru] erupted in 1600, the largest eruption in South America, causing global cooling and food shortages, even as far away as Russia.

Unzendake

[Kyushu, Japan] [volcanic group] 1792: collapse of a lava dome triggered a megatsunami killing 15 thousand people (Japan's worst volcano disaster), 1991: erupted and triggered pyroclastic flows that killed 43 people, including scientists. It is still active and risky.

Tambora

[Indonesia] that erupted in 1815, was the most powerful in recorded history. It caused the "Year Without a Summer" in 1816, leading to worldwide crop failures and famine.

Krakatoa

[Indonesia] erupted in 1883, heard 3,000 miles away and caused massive tsunamis that killed over 36,000 people and made the moon look blue

Lake Nyos

[Cameroon, Africa] [crater lake above inactive volcano] released a deadly cloud of carbon dioxide in 1986, suffocating over 1,700 people. The gas had built up from volcanic activity beneath the lake.

Mount St. Helens

[Washington State, USA] 1980 eruption was the most destructive in U.S. history, blowing off the mountain's top, killing 57 people, and causing massive landslides and ashfall; now it's a popular hiking spot

Eyjafjallajökull

[Iceland] small eruption in 2010, releasing huge ash clouds that shut down air travel across Europe for weeks, but caused advertisement for Iceland

Hunga Tonga

[Tonga] [underwater volcano] erupted in 2022, one of the most powerful of the 21st century, causing tsunamis and a shockwave that traveled around the world.

Yellowstone

[Wyoming, USA] [supervolcano] known for its geothermal features like geysers and hot springs, last erupted around 640,000 years ago but is closely studied due to its potential for an eruption.

Punic Wars

Three wars between Rome and the Carthaginian Empire over control of trade and territory in the western Mediterranean. Rome finally destroyed Carthage in the Third Punic War.

Hundred Years War

A long conflict between England and France over the French throne - France won the battle. Mostly fought in France, with some battles in England. Included the rise of Joan of Arc and developments like the use of longbows.

Mongol Invasions

A series of military invasions led by Genghis Khan, expanded the Mongol Empire across Asia and Europe - One of the largest contiguous empire in history. Known for their skilled fighters and brutal tactics, fell through after Genghis Khan's death.

Reconquista (Spain)

A series of war by Christian kingdoms to reclaim the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule. Ended when Ferdinand and Isabella captured the last Muslim stronghold (the fall of Granada) in 1942- completing Christian control of Spain and Portugal.

335 Years War

A conflict between the Isles of Scilly (England) and the Netherlands, with no actual fighting despite being the longest war. The war began after a small maritime dispute over the capture of a Dutch ship and ended when both sides agreed to peace in 1986, when they remembered the war.

What will eventually happen to the Sun in ~1 billion years?

Sun will eventually run out of hydrogen fuel, becoming a red giant in ~1 billion years

What will happen to the Sun in ~5 billion years?

Sun will shed its outer layers, becoming a white dwarf

What happens when you add mass (gas giants) to the Sun?

Sun burns hotter and faster

interstellar migration

Moving to another star system is a possible option, but it's impractical due to massive time and energy requirements. This would only delay the problem, not solve it long-term.

lowering the sun's mass, making it into a red dwarf

Earth may need to move closer for a habitable zone, increasing the threat of tidal locking [one side of earth will be scorching hot and the other freezing cold]

how the sun works

produces energy through nuclear fusion, turning hydrogen into helium.

add more hydrogen fuel to the sun, using hydrogen full planets like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune

requires lots of energy, the sun will burn even faster too

move to Venus after decreasing the Sun's mass

doesn't actually solve the problem

splitting helium back into hydrogen

sun doesn't produce enough energy to be used, and too slow

brown dwarf

failed stars

white dwarf

star corpses

red dwarfs

the most numerous & smallest type of star, mostly helium

red giants

dying, bloated stars

planetary nebula

gas emission nebula created by dying red giants

black dwarfs

theoretical star corpses that have cooled and do not emit significant heat or light

yellow dwarfs

G-class main sequence stars, like the Sun

War of the Roses

A civil war in England between the rival royal houses of Lancaster (red rose) and York (white rose) was fought for control of the English throne. Ended when Henry Tudor (Lancaster) defeated Richard III, founding the Tudor dynasty as he married Elizabeth of York.