Key Concepts in Early Modern European History and Exploration

Politiques

French moderates who valued political unity over religious divisions, promoted tolerance and stability.

Mercantilism

State-controlled economic system focused on exports, colonies, and accumulating precious metals for power.

Inflation

General rise in prices; in the 1500s driven by population growth and influx of New World silver.

Sexism

Discrimination based on sex, reinforcing traditional gender roles and limiting women's opportunities.

Racism

Belief in racial superiority; used to justify slavery, conquest, and colonial hierarchies.

Skepticism

Intellectual doubt of absolute knowledge; fostered tolerance, questioning, and religious moderation.

Misogyny

Hatred or prejudice against women, shaping culture, politics, and legal systems.

Baroque

Emotional, dramatic art and architecture tied to Catholic Reformation and absolutist monarchies.

Quinto

Royal tax where Spain claimed one-fifth of American silver and gold, boosting crown revenues.

Thirty Years' War

Religious and political conflict in the Holy Roman Empire, devastating central Europe and shifting power.

Spanish Armada

Massive fleet sent by Philip II against England in 1588; defeated by storms and English tactics.

Peace of Westphalia

1648 treaties ending the Thirty Years' War, establishing sovereignty and religious pluralism.

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

1572 massacre of Huguenots in Paris, symbolizing brutal religious conflict.

War of the Three Henries

French civil war between Henry III, Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre (later Henry IV).

Edict of Nantes

1598 decree granting Huguenots limited rights, balancing Catholic dominance with toleration.

East India Company

Dutch and English joint-stock companies created to control Asian trade and colonization.

Nobility of the robe

French nobles who purchased or earned offices, loyal to monarchy over old nobility.

Defenestration of Prague

1618 act of Protestants throwing Catholics out a window, sparking war in HRE.

Caravel

Small, fast Portuguese ship with lateen sails, key to Atlantic exploration and discovery.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

1559 peace ending Habsburg-Valois Wars, confirming Spanish dominance in Italy.

Catherine de' Medici

Powerful French queen and regent, manipulated politics during Wars of Religion.

Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)

Protestant turned Catholic king; politique who issued Edict of Nantes for peace.

Henry III

Last Valois king of France, assassinated amid the Wars of Religion and instability.

Henry of Guise

Catholic League leader who fought for Catholic dominance and against Protestant rights.

Gaspard de Coligny

Huguenot military leader and royal advisor, assassinated in 1572 massacre.

Philip II

Powerful Spanish king, staunch Catholic, ruler of empire and defender against Protestantism.

"Council of Blood"

Harsh tribunal created by Duke of Alba to suppress Dutch Protestant rebels.

Union of Utrecht

1579 alliance of northern Dutch provinces declaring independence from Spanish rule.

Mary Queen of Scots

Catholic cousin of Elizabeth I, executed for plotting to overthrow Protestant England.

Pope Sixtus V

Pope who strongly supported Catholic monarchs, especially Philip II, in wars against heresy.

Protestant Union

1608 alliance of German Protestant states formed to defend their interests.

Catholic League

1609 alliance of Catholic princes, backed by Spain, opposing Protestant Union.

Prince Henry "The Navigator"

Portuguese prince who funded voyages, advancing navigation and exploration.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who sailed around Africa, reaching India in 1498 for trade.

Astrolabe

Navigational tool using stars or sun to determine latitude at sea.

Hernando Cortés

Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Aztec Empire, claiming Mexico for Spain.

Christopher Columbus

Genoese sailor sponsored by Spain; reached Americas in 1492, sparking global exchange.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire and seized its wealth.

Price revolution

Period of major inflation in Europe, linked to silver influx and rising populations.

Viceroyalties

Spanish colonial administrations in the Americas governed by viceroys.

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Spanish priest who denounced Native mistreatment and promoted reform.

Columbian Exchange

Global transfer of crops, animals, disease, and people between Old and New Worlds.

Captaincies

Portuguese colonial land grants in Brazil given to nobles to govern.

Intendants

French royal officials enforcing monarchy's power, taxation, and justice in provinces.

Encomienda system

Spanish labor system forcing Native tribute and work for colonists.

Inca Empire

Andean empire conquered by Pizarro, known for roads and advanced agriculture.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 treaty dividing New World between Spain (west) and Portugal (east).

Ferdinand Magellan

Explorer whose expedition first circumnavigated the globe, though he was killed en route.

Mexica (Aztec) Empire

Mesoamerican empire in central Mexico, conquered by Cortés in 1521.

Malacca

Strategic Southeast Asian port controlling spice routes, contested by Europeans.

Zheng He

Chinese admiral who led huge naval voyages before Ming China ended exploration.

Conquistadores

Spanish conquerors driven by wealth, glory, and spreading Christianity.

Magnetic compass

Navigational instrument showing direction, critical for open-sea voyages.

Lisbon

Capital of Portugal; hub of 16th-century exploration and world trade.

Puritans

English Protestants seeking to reform Church of England, some emigrated to America.

Philip III

Spanish king (1598-1621), weak ruler during Spain's decline.

Philip IV

Spanish king (1621-1665), presided over wars and continued decline of empire.

Lateen sail

Triangular sail allowing ships to tack against wind, vital for exploration.

Military revolution

16th-17th century shift in warfare with gunpowder, standing armies, and stronger states.