Exam #1 Prep

What is the universalization test in Kantianism?

It's basically asking: what if everyone did this? If the rule falls apart when everyone follows it (like if everyone lied, promises would be meaningless), then it's morally wrong.

What does it mean to treat someone as an end in themselves?

You respect them as their own person with their own goals and dignity - not just using them to get what you want.

What does it mean to treat someone as a means?

You're basically using them like a tool to get what you want, without caring about their own needs or treating them like a real person.

Why is breaking promises wrong according to Kantianism?

If everyone broke promises whenever they felt like it, the whole idea of promising would fall apart - nobody would believe promises anymore. So it fails the universalization test.

What are perfect duties in Kantianism?

These are the absolute must-dos - no exceptions ever. Things like don't lie, don't murder, don't break promises. You have to follow these 100% of the time.

What are imperfect duties in Kantianism?

These are things you should do, but you get to choose when and how. Like helping people in need or developing your talents - you don't have to do it every single time, but you can't ignore it completely either.

Give an example of a perfect duty.

Don't lie, don't break promises, don't steal, don't murder - basically anything that would create a logical mess if everyone did it all the time.

Give an example of an imperfect duty.

Help people when they need it, work on your skills and talents, be grateful - stuff where you have some wiggle room on when and how you do it.

What did Kant say about censorship?

"Have courage to use your own reason" - basically, people need to think for themselves. Censorship treats people like they can't handle ideas, which disrespects their ability to think.

Why did Kant oppose censorship?

Because it treats people like they're too dumb to think for themselves (means) instead of respecting them as rational thinkers (ends). It takes away their ability to use their own brain, which is a huge part of human dignity.

What is the basic formula for act utilitarianism?

Add up all the good stuff, subtract all the bad stuff from your action. Pick whatever gives you the biggest positive number for everyone affected.

What must you do before calculating in act utilitarianism?

Figure out everyone who's going to be affected - not just the obvious people, but anyone who might feel the impact, even people in the future.

What are Bentham's seven factors for calculating pleasure and pain?

Intensity, Duration, Certainty, Propinquity, Fecundity, Purity, Extent

Match: Intensity

How strong the pleasure or pain is

Match: Duration

How long it lasts

Match: Certainty

How likely it is to actually happen

Match: Propinquity

How soon it's going to happen

Match: Fecundity

Whether it leads to more of the same (pleasure leading to more pleasure, or pain to more pain)

Match: Purity

Whether it's going to be followed by the opposite (pleasure followed by pain, or vice versa)

Match: Extent

How many people are affected

What is the problem of moral luck in act utilitarianism?

You can't see the future. You might do something thinking it'll turn out great, but then something totally unpredictable happens and it goes horribly wrong.

Why is moral luck a weakness of act utilitarianism?

It's not really fair - you could make the best decision possible with the info you have, but still get blamed if something you couldn't predict goes sideways.

What does act utilitarianism focus on instead of intentions?

Only the results matter. Doesn't matter if you meant well - it's all about what actually happens in the end.

What is the central question of rule utilitarianism?

"What if everyone followed this rule all the time?" - you're judging the rule itself, not just one action.

How does rule utilitarianism determine if a rule is moral?

If everyone following the rule creates more overall happiness than any other rule, then it's a good rule.

What is the key difference between act and rule utilitarianism?

Act looks at each individual action and its specific results. Rule looks at what happens if everyone follows a certain rule in general.

How does rule utilitarianism avoid the problem of moral luck?

It looks at what usually happens when people follow a rule, not what might randomly happen in one weird case. You're judging patterns, not unpredictable one-offs.

Does rule utilitarianism apply to individual actions or rules?

Rules, not individual actions. You evaluate whether the rule is good, not whether breaking it might help in one specific situation.

What is the veil of ignorance in social contract theory?

A thought experiment where you design a society but you don't know who you'll be in it - rich or poor, healthy or sick, majority or minority. Forces you to be fair since you might end up anywhere.

Why does the veil of ignorance produce fair principles?

Because you'll want to protect even the worst positions in society, since you might end up there. You can't rig the game for yourself if you don't know who you'll be.

What are Rawls's two principles of justice?

1) Everyone gets equal basic freedoms (speech, religion, voting, etc.). 2) Inequalities are only okay if they actually help the people at the bottom.

What is Rawls's difference principle?

Rich and poor gaps are fine, but ONLY if those gaps actually make life better for the poorest people. Inequality has to lift the bottom, not just the top.

Why would rational people accept Rawls's principles behind the veil of ignorance?

Because you might be the poorest, sickest, most disadvantaged person. You'd want basic rights protected and you'd only accept inequality if it helps you even when you're at the bottom.

What are negative rights?

Rights that protect you FROM stuff - like freedom from government censorship or being searched without a warrant. Other people just need to leave you alone.

What are positive rights?

Rights that give you access TO stuff - like education, healthcare, housing. Other people or society has to actually provide something to you.

Give an example of a negative right.

Freedom of speech, freedom from random searches, right to privacy, freedom of religion - basically rights where people just need to not mess with you.

Give an example of a positive right.

Right to education, healthcare, legal representation - anything where society has to give you something, not just leave you alone.

What are absolute rights?

Rights that can never, ever be violated no matter what the situation is.

What are limited rights?

Rights that can be restricted in certain cases - like you have free speech, but you can't yell "fire!" in a crowded theater to cause panic.

What are privacy rights based on?

Reasonable expectations - if society agrees you should expect privacy somewhere (like your home), then you have privacy rights there. But not in totally public places.

What is the tragedy of the commons?

When everyone acts in their own self-interest and ends up ruining a shared resource, even though everyone would be better off if they'd cooperated.

Give an example of the tragedy of the commons.

Overfishing, air pollution, overgrazing public land, climate change - anywhere people wreck something shared because nobody owns it so everyone takes advantage.

What is the central question of virtue ethics?

"What would a good person do?" - it's about character, not following rules or calculating outcomes.

What is a virtue according to virtue ethics?

It's the sweet spot between two extremes. Not too much, not too little - the balanced middle ground of a character trait.

What virtue is the mean between cowardice and rashness?

Courage - not being too scared to act, but not being reckless either.

What virtue is the mean between stinginess and lavishness?

Generosity - giving appropriately, not being cheap but not throwing money around carelessly either.

Give another example of virtue as a mean between vices.

Courage is between being a coward and being reckless. Generosity is between being stingy and being wasteful.

What are intellectual virtues?

Virtues about thinking well - wisdom, good judgment, understanding, reasoning ability. Basically being good at finding truth and thinking clearly.

What are moral virtues?

Character traits about how you act and feel - honesty, courage, generosity, self-control. The stuff that makes you a good person.

Give examples of intellectual virtues.

Wisdom, understanding, good judgment, ability to reason - traits that help you think straight and figure out what's true.

Give examples of moral virtues.

Honesty, courage, self-control, generosity - character traits that help you do the right thing and be a decent person.

How are virtues developed according to virtue ethics?

By doing the right thing over and over until it becomes part of who you are. Practice makes it natural - you build character through repeated good actions.

What makes an action right in virtue ethics?

If it's what a good person with solid character would do in that situation. It's about acting from good character, not just following a rule.

Why are virtues needed according to virtue ethics?

For living well and being truly happy (not just feeling good, but genuine fulfillment). Virtues help you flourish as a human being.

Why are personal relationships morally relevant in virtue ethics?

Because being a good friend or family member requires specific virtues like trust, loyalty, equality. You have special responsibilities to people close to you, not just general duties to everyone.

What are friendship virtues?

Trust, reciprocity, equality - the character traits you need to be a good friend and maintain real relationships.

What are professional virtues for engineers and managers?

Honesty and hard work - the character traits you need to do your job well and serve the people who depend on you.

How do moral decision-making skills develop in virtue ethics?

Moral decisions help build someone's virtues and build character.

Does virtue ethics believe there are irresolvable moral dilemmas?

Nope. A truly good person with enough wisdom can figure out the right thing to do in any situation. If it seems impossible, you just need more wisdom or better character.

What role do emotions play in virtue ethics?

A virtuous person feels the right emotions at the right time in response to the right situations.

What is the key summary phrase of virtue ethics?

"Do the right thing at the right time for the right reason" - you need all three: the correct action, the right timing, and the proper motivation.

How does virtue ethics differ from Kantianism and utilitarianism?

Virtue ethics is about who you are (character), not what rule to follow (Kantianism) or what results you get (utilitarianism). It asks "What kind of person should I be?"

What does virtue ethics focus on instead of rules or consequences?

Character - developing good traits in yourself rather than just following rules or calculating what will happ