AP PSYCH ALL TERMS 24/25

These flashcards cover key vocabulary terms from psychology, including concepts, theories, and definitions relevant for exam preparation.

confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; the 'I-knew-it-all-along' phenomenon.

overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

cultural norms

A group of shared beliefs, values, expectations, and behaviors that are considered typical for a specific society or culture.

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

falsifiable

A scientific hypothesis that can be disproven by an experimental observation or empirical test.

replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, to see whether the basic findings extend to other participants and circumstances.

peer review

Evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others working in the same field.

population

All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

sample

A small group of individuals selected from a larger population to be included in a study.

representative sample

Sample that resembles a population.

random sampling

Sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

convenience sampling

Research sampling strategy that involves selecting participants based on their accessibility and availability to the researcher.

generalizability

A measure of how useful the results of a study are for a larger group of people or situations.

qualitative research/measures

A method of research that produces descriptive (non-numerical) data, such as observations of behavior or personal accounts of experiences.

structured interviews

A research method that uses a predetermined set of questions asked in a specific order to all interviewees.

case study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

naturalistic observation

Observing/recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

quantitative research/measures

A method of research that uses numerical data to analyze statistical relationships and describe, understand, and predict phenomena.

Likert scales

A psychometric tool that's often used in psychology questionnaires to measure attitudes, behaviors, and personality.

social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself; a possible challenge to self-report surveys.

experimental group

A subject or group of subjects in an experiment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.

random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance; minimizes effect of possible confounding variables.

control group

The group not exposed to the factor or condition being tested; serves to evaluate the effect of the treatment.

independent variables (IV)

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variables

In an experiment, a variable, other than the independent variable, that could influence the dependent variable.

dependent variables (DV)

The experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the IV.

operational definitions

A statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables.

placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; effect caused by the administration of inert substance/condition.

placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

single-blind study

A clinical trial design where only one party, either the researcher or the participant, is unaware of which treatment or intervention the participant is receiving.

double-blind study

Both the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo.

experimenter bias

Any systematic errors in the research process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to a researcher's behavior, preconceived beliefs, expectancies, or desires about results.

correlation

The extent to which two factors vary together; of how well either factor predicts the other.

positive correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both rise and fall together.

negative correlation

A relationship between two variables that move in opposite directions.

scatterplot

A type of data display that shows the relationship between two numerical variables.

correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the strength of a linear relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1.

effect sizes

Way to measure the magnitude of a difference between groups or the significance of a relationship between variables in sampled data.

statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

directionality problem (in correlation)

A limitation of correlational research that occurs when it's unclear which variable influences another.

third variable problem (in correlation)

When a third variable causes a correlation between two other variables, making it seem like they have a causal relationship when they don't.

meta-analysis

A statistical method that combines and analyzes the results of multiple studies on a topic to draw an overall conclusion.

descriptive statistics

Describes a data set, often through summary statistics, graphs, and tables.

inferential statistics

Uses a small sample of data to draw inferences about the larger population that the sample came from.

central tendency

The typical value of a distribution; commonly measured by mode, mean, and median.

range

The difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution.

variation

The degree to which values in a variable are dispersed or vary.

percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or lower than a specific score.

mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

normal curve

A theoretical, bell-shaped distribution that describes how data is distributed in many natural phenomena.

positive skew

When data is clustered at one end of a distribution graph, with a few extreme scores toward the high end relative to the low end.

negative skew

A distribution where data is clustered at one end and is not spread evenly.

bimodal distribution

A set of scores with two peaks, or modes, where values tend to cluster.

standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

regression toward the mean

A statistical phenomenon that describes how values that are much higher or lower than the mean are often closer to the mean when measured a second time.

informed consent

Agreement to participate in psychology research, after being informed of the dangers and benefits of the research.

informed assent

An agreement by an individual not competent to give legally valid informed consent.

deception

Types of communications or omissions (by the researcher) that serve to distort or omit the complete truth.

debriefing

Giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after it is completed.

protection from harm

Ensuring that participants will not be caused distress greater than that which is typical of normal life.

confidentiality

Participants and the data gained from them must be kept anonymous.

withdrawal

Participants can leave a study at any time.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research to make sure it is ethically and methodologically sound.

heredity

The transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to offspring through their genes.

nature

Refers to the influence of genetic inheritance on behavior and traits.

nurture

Refers to the influence of environmental factors, such as upbringing, culture, and personal experiences, on behavior and development.

genetic predisposition

Tendency or increased likelihood to develop a particular trait or disorder based on an individual's genetic makeup.

evolutionary perspective

Theoretical approach that explains psychological traits and behaviors as adaptations shaped by natural selection.

natural selection

Process in which individuals with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

eugenics

Controversial and historically significant movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population.

twin studies

Research studies that examine the similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins.

family studies

Research that investigates the occurrence of a trait or disorder within a family to determine whether it is inherited.

adoption studies

Research that compares the traits and behaviors of adopted children to those of their biological and adoptive parents.

central nervous system (CNS)

Division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

somatic nervous system

Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information.

autonomic nervous system

Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

sympathetic nervous system

Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system responsible for mobilizing the body in times of stress.

parasympathetic nervous system

Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system responsible for calming the body.

neurons

Basic building blocks of the nervous system; specialized cells that transmit information throughout the body.

glial cells

Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support, protection, and nutrition to neurons.

reflex arc

Neural pathway that controls a reflex action.

sensory neurons

Neurons that carry information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

motor neurons

Neurons that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

interneurons

Neurons located within the central nervous system that connect sensory and motor neurons.

neural transmission

Process by which neurons communicate with each other.

action potential

Brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron.

all-or-nothing principle

That a neuron either fires completely or not at all.

depolarization

Process during which a neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative.

refractory period

Brief period after a neuron has fired an action potential during which it cannot fire again.

resting potential

Electrical charge of a neuron when it is not actively firing an action potential.

reuptake

Process by which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron.

threshold

Level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

multiple sclerosis

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system by damaging the myelin sheath.

myasthenia gravis

Autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the receptors for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

excitatory neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential.

inhibitory neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential.