STS chap 2

**Revolution**

denotes a drastic change in what is established, believed and embraced by the society.

**Heretics**

outcasts of society, people who shared revolutionary ideas Many were ostracized, imprisoned and prevented fom publishing their writings.

**Nicolaus Copernicus**

an astronomer of the Renaissance period who challenged the previous notion about the cosmos, led the so-called Scientific Revolution.

**Epitome of Ptolemy's Almagest**

Johann Muller's Epitoma in Almagestum

**Disputations against divinatory astrology**

Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinatricem

**PRE-COPERNICAN SYSTEM**

Came about in response to the questions that cannot be addressed by the geocentric model of the universe

**Ptolemy**

Popularized the term “ geocentrism”, Earth as the center of the universe

**Anaximander**

He drew the first map of the world during 6th century BC

**Pythagoras**

First to suggest that the earth was a sphere

**Anaximander**

Earth taking the shape of a cylinder floating in the center of the universe

**Pythagoras**

The conclusion was after studying the constellations and the Earth's circular shadow on the moon during lunar eclipse.

**Anaximander**

Sun and Moon were hollow rings of fire and the eclipses were the results of these rings closing

**Map of the world according to Anaximander during 600 BC**

**Plato**

Student of Socrates

**Aristotle**

Studied under Plato

**Plato**

Believed that the cosmos is made up of matter in geometric shapes

**Aristotle**

\- Posited that the Earth was at the center of the universe with all other celestial bodies arranged in concentric crystalline spheres around it

**Geocentric Model**

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**Heliocentric Model**

**Geocentric Model**

By Ptolemy, redined explanation behind the movements of planets

**Heliocentric Model**

By Copernicus “Father of Modern Astronomy”

**Geocentric Model**

Earth was unmoving while the Sun, planets and stars revolved around it

**NICOLAUS COPERNICUS**

For him, the geocentric model did not discuss the occasional backward movement of the planets or RETROGADE MOTION.

**Earth's rotation**

causes the rising and setting of the Sun and the seasons

**Earth's revolution**

causes the movements of the stars

**NICOLAUS COPERNICUS**

University of Krakow, studied astronomy, mathematics, philosophy and sciences. Proposed that the earth is not the center of the universe but the Sun.

**Nicolaus Copernicus**

According to him the movement of the earth sometimes cause the retrograde motion and planets travel in perfect circles

**Nicolaus Copernicus**

He finished his research in 1532, although he is hesitant to publish his ideas and took almost a hundred years before his theory formally gained respect and recognition

**Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)**

Rejected that the Earth is not the center of the universe. According to him, The earth is the fixed center, with the Sun and Moon orbiting the Earth, and the other planets revolving around the Sun.

**Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)**

proposed his own model, geoheliocentrism or the Tychonic System. Combination of Copernican and Ptolemaic systems

**`The Tychonic Model by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)**

gues what revolution model and proposed by who?

**JOHANNES KEPLER**

proposed the law of planetary motions in 1609. According to him, planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.

**Galileo Galilei**

Best known for his works in the field of astronomy, cosmology, philosophy, mathematics and physics. Proposed that Earth orbited around the Sun.

**GALILEO GALILEI**

First person to observe craters of the moon using telescope. Using a telescope, he was able to observe movements of the Moon, Venus, Jupiter and its satellites. Discovery of existence of sunspots

**Sir Isaac Newton**

First one to provide mathematical equations that could prove Copernicus, Brahe and Kepler have explained

**GALILEO GALILEI**

Persecuted and put on trial by the Inquisition in Rome. Found guilty of heresy

**Sir Isaac Newton**

Philosopiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

**Giordano Bruno**

Martyred Italian monk who spread Copernicus’s theory of a heliocentric and scientific universe

**Anton Van Leeuwenhoek**

\-Father of Microbiology. Discovered bacteria

**Robert Boyle**

Father of Modern Chemistry. Extensive experiment and use of Scientific method

**Francis Bacon**

Supporter of the empirical method and inductive reasoning which provide that people understand truths according to their experience

**Rene Descartes**

Practiced deductive reasoning and the scientific method in solving problems and whose idea of the human consciousness dominated until the 20th century

**Evolution**

is the change in characteristics of a species over several generations, relying on the idea that all species are related and gradually change over time.

**PRE-DARWINIAN BELIEF**

It has always been controversial.

**Creationism**

the view that the universe originated from “specific acts of divine creation

**Carolus Linnaeus**

He subscribed to the Judeo-Christian version of creationism and saw their work as a mere representation of the unchanging order of life created by God.

**Erasmus Darwin**

a physician and a discreet evolutionist (transmutationist – one who believed evolution occurred in living things)

**Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life**

contained theories about evolution and suggested that the Earth could have been much older than the timeline based on the biblical origin

**Charles Darwin**

At age 16, he entered Edinburgh University to study medicine

**Robert Grant**

* A radical evolutionist and a follower of French biologist, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.


* Darwin’s mentor.


* growth and relationship of primitive marine invertebrates

**CHARLES DARWIN**

Also influenced by **ADAM SEDWICK** and **JOHN STEVENS HENSLOW**

**CHARLES DARWIN**

* Summer of 1931, Adam Sedgwick and Darwin traveled to Wales


* December 27, 1831, Henslow and Darwin went on a voyage to Tierra del Fuego


* HMS Beagle with Captain Robert Fitzroy

**England in 1836**

Charles Darwin wrote his findings in the Journal of Researches

**Charles Darwin**

Was published as part of Robert Fitzroy’s narrative of the voyage (Zoology of the Voyage of the HMS Beagle)

**Darwin’s observations**

the similarities of different species in different parts of the globe and their variations in specific areas led him to believe that they evolved from common ancestors

**Natural selection**

a process where species that adapt to the changing environment survive, whereas those that do not simply die out On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection

**Charles Darwin**

Father of Evolution

**Richard Owen and John Gould**

Darwin’s findings were scrutinized by experts

**Darwin's publication**

steered the intellectual history of humanity in a new direction

**Darwinian Revolution**

* completed the Copernican Revolution


* radically changed the perception of humans of their place in the universe
* drew out for biology the notion of nature as an orderly system governed by natural laws , where the origin of humanity itself could be explained
* following this theory, the contemporary study of DNA of different species showed evidence of his theorization of evolution

**Darwinism**

Darwin's theory of biological evolution, paved the way not only for developments in evolutionary biology but also a foundation for the philosophy of biology

**Evolutionary Biology**

sub-discipline of biological sciences that has to do with the origin of life as well as diversification and adaptation of life forms through time

**JULIAN HUXLEY**

coined the term modern synthesis or NeoDarwinism, reconciling Darwin's theory with that of Gregor Mendel's idea on heredity

**Philosophy of Biology**

* A branch of philosophy of science that has to do with biology


* It makes biology relevant to classic issues in the philosophy of Science such as causation and explanation, progress, reductionism, and chance.

**PRE-FREUDIAN PSYCHOLOGY**

* Psychology as a branch of philosophy


* Psychology’s development into an independent scientific field

**Priest, Shamans, Spiritual Leaders**

Since the dawn of the civilization and establishment of the earliest religions and spiritual beliefs. People were dependent on:

A formal study of the mind

But as time passed by, psychology developed and was defined as ________ and a more systematic approach to understanding and curing mental conditions

**Plato (427- 347 BCE)**

Proposed that “psyche” was the seat of all human knowledge

**Aristotle (384 – 322 BC)**

Wrote “Para Psyche” (About Human Mind). Proposed that the human mind was the primary reason for the existence and functioning of the body.

**Psyche**

word used to describe mind and soul

**Anamnesis**

process of unlocking and utilizing knowledge in our human mind

**Para Psyche**

the first known text in the history of psychology

**Late 1870s**

psychology developed into an independent scientific field

**Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)**

\- founder of first laboratory dedicated to psychological research

**Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)**

“Founder of Experimental Psychology”

**Principles of Physiological Psychology**

This sought to investigate the immediate experiences of consciousness including sensations, feelings, volitions and ideas

**William James**

* “Father of American Psychology”


* Known for “pragmatism”

**Ivan Pavlov**

Known for discovering Classical Conditioning

**Hermann Ebbinghaus**

\- Developed the first scientific approach to the study of a higher psychological process (memory)

**René Descartes (1596–1650)**

* 17th century philosopher


* known for his "Cartesian paradigm"

Dualism

What Cartesian paradigm called?

mind-mind problem

Mind in relation to itself

mind-body problem

mind in relation to the body

Dualism

asserts that mind and body are two entities that interact to form human experience

**René Descartes (1596–1650)**

According to a philosopher, humans are immediately aware of their own cognitive states and process out of necessity, and such self-aware mind is distinct to the body.

Mind

______ is a mere non-physical thing that interacts with the physical body through the brain as medium.

brain

Mind is a mere non-physical thing that interacts with the physical body through the _______ as medium.

During 19th century

* Cartesian paradigm came under pressure


* Studies of disorders caused by brain lesions showed that mental faculty for language is connected to a

**Charles Darwin’s Evolution Theory**

This theory states that every aspect of humans including their mental capacities, evolved in response to the physical selection process

**Sigmund Freud**

All cognitive processes are unconscious.

**Sigismund "Sigmund" Scholomo Freud**

* His interest in laboratory work shifted from microscopic studies to living patients
* He spent most of his life studying human psychology.

Psychoanalysis

Freud created his magnum opus called _____ which includes: methodology of treating mental illnesses

**Sigismund "Sigmund" Scholomo Freud**

He earned the title “Father of Psychoanalysis”

Psychoanalysis

\*It is anchored on the concept that human behavior is determined by: Unconscious motivation and biological and instinctive drives

Eros

refers to the survival instincts like hunger, thirst, and sexual impulses

Thanatos

Aggressive and self-destructive instincts driven toward death.

ID

\- Unconscious aspect of personality like untamed instincts, impulses, and desires.

Ego

\- It is responsible for dealing in reality

ID

present since birth and operates by the pleasure principle

EGO

\- Its main function is to be the referee between id and the demands and expectation of the society